Abstract

Translate

We propose a dynamic monitoring and precision fertilization decision system for agricultural soil nutrients, integrating UAV remote sensing and GIS technologies to address the limitations of traditional soil nutrient assessment methods. The proposed method combines multi-source data fusion, including hyperspectral and multispectral UAV imagery with ground sensor data, to achieve high-resolution spatial and spectral analysis of soil nutrients. Real-time data processing algorithms enable rapid updates of soil nutrient status, while a time-series dynamic model captures seasonal variations and crop growth stage influences, improving prediction accuracy (RMSE reductions of 43–70% for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium compared to conventional laboratory-based methods and satellite NDVI approaches). The experimental validation compared the proposed system against two conventional approaches: (1) laboratory soil testing with standardized fertilization recommendations and (2) satellite NDVI-based fertilization. Field trials across three distinct agroecological zones demonstrated that the proposed system reduced fertilizer inputs by 18–27% while increasing crop yields by 4–11%, outperforming both conventional methods. Furthermore, an intelligent fertilization decision model generates tailored fertilization plans by analyzing real-time soil conditions, crop demands, and climate factors, with continuous learning enhancing its precision over time. The system also incorporates GIS-based visualization tools, providing intuitive spatial representations of nutrient distributions and interactive functionalities for detailed insights. Our approach significantly advances precision agriculture by automating the entire workflow from data collection to decision-making, reducing resource waste and optimizing crop yields. The integration of UAV remote sensing, dynamic modeling, and machine learning distinguishes this work from conventional static systems, offering a scalable and adaptive framework for sustainable farming practices.

Full text

Turn on search term navigation

Translate

1. Introduction

Modern agriculture faces increasing demands for sustainable and efficient production systems, with soil nutrient management being a critical factor influencing crop yield and environmental sustainability. Traditional soil nutrient monitoring methods rely heavily on field sampling and laboratory analysis, which are time-consuming and costly, and lack spatial continuity [1,2,3]. Remote sensing technologies have emerged as promising alternatives, offering non-destructive and large-scale monitoring capabilities. Satellite-based multispectral and hyperspectral imaging have been widely used for soil property estimation [4,5,6], yet their spatial and temporal resolutions often prove inadequate for precision agriculture applications.

The advent of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing has revolutionized agricultural monitoring by providing high-resolution imagery with flexible acquisition schedules [7]. UAV platforms equipped with multispectral and hyperspectral sensors have demonstrated remarkable potential in crop health assessment and soil property estimation [8,9]. When combined with Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies, these data enable sophisticated spatial analysis and visualization of soil nutrient distributions [10]. However, existing systems often operate in isolation, failing to fully exploit the synergies between different data sources and analytical approaches.

Recent advances in data fusion techniques effectively integrate multi-source agricultural data, including satellite imagery, UAV data, and ground sensor measurements [11,12]. While machine learning algorithms successfully process these datasets for crop yield prediction [13], most current systems use static models. These models fail to capture dynamic nutrient variations caused by seasonal changes, crop growth stages, and environmental factors [14,15].

Existing soil nutrient monitoring systems often operate in isolation, failing to fully leverage the complementary strengths of different analytical approaches. Conventional methods relying solely on satellite remote sensing face inherent resolution limitations that compromise their precision for field-scale applications, while laboratory-based soil testing, despite its accuracy, cannot provide the spatial continuity or temporal responsiveness required for dynamic agricultural management. Furthermore, traditional static models struggle to adapt to the rapidly changing nutrient conditions influenced by environmental factors and crop growth stages. These fundamental limitations in current approaches highlight the critical need for an integrated system that combines multi-source data fusion with real-time processing capabilities and adaptive modeling techniques to enable truly precision agriculture.

We propose a novel integrated system that addresses these limitations through three key innovations. First, our method combines UAV remote sensing with ground sensor data in a multi-source fusion framework, achieving unprecedented spatial and spectral resolution in soil nutrient monitoring. Second, we develop a dynamic modeling approach that continuously updates soil nutrient status based on time-series analysis, accounting for temporal variations in nutrient availability. Third, we implement an intelligent decision-making module that generates precision fertilization recommendations by analyzing real-time soil conditions, crop requirements, and environmental factors, with machine learning algorithms continuously improving prediction accuracy.

The proposed system differs from conventional approaches in several important aspects. Unlike traditional laboratory-based methods, our UAV-GIS integration enables rapid, large-scale monitoring with high spatial resolution. Compared to existing remote sensing systems, our dynamic modeling approach captures temporal variations more effectively. Furthermore, our intelligent decision module goes beyond static recommendation systems by incorporating continuous learning and real-time data processing capabilities [16].

This paper makes four main contributions to the field of precision agriculture. We present (1) a comprehensive UAV-GIS framework for high-resolution soil nutrient monitoring, (2) a dynamic modeling approach for time-series nutrient status prediction, (3) an intelligent fertilization decision system with continuous learning capabilities, and (4) experimental validation demonstrating the system’s effectiveness in real-world agricultural scenarios. Our approach represents a significant advancement over existing methods by integrating the entire workflow from data collection to decision-making in a unified, automated system.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 reviews related work in soil nutrient monitoring and precision fertilization systems. Section 3 provides background knowledge on UAV remote sensing and GIS technologies. Section 4 details our proposed methodology, while Section 5 describes the experimental setup. Results and analysis are presented in Section 6, followed by discussion and future work in Section 7. The paper concludes with Section 8.

2. Related Work

Recent advancements in precision agriculture have seen significant developments in soil nutrient monitoring and fertilization decision-making systems. These approaches can be broadly categorized into three main research directions: remote sensing-based soil nutrient estimation, data fusion techniques for agricultural monitoring, and intelligent fertilization decision systems.

2.1. Remote Sensing for Soil Nutrient Monitoring

Satellite remote sensing has long been employed for large-scale soil property estimation, with MODIS and Landsat data being particularly popular due to their extensive temporal coverage [17,18]. However, these platforms suffer from inherent limitations in spatial resolution, typically ranging from 10 to 250 m, which proves insufficient for field-scale precision agriculture applications. More recent studies have explored the potential of Sentinel-2 data, which offers improved spatial resolution (10–60 m) and spectral characteristics suitable for soil organic matter estimation [19].

Recent work by Yuan et al. [20] and Jiang et al. [21] has enhanced UAV-based soil nutrient prediction using deep learning, achieving higher spatial resolution than satellite-based methods. Their studies demonstrate that UAV-mounted hyperspectral sensors can now detect nitrogen variations at 2 cm resolution when combined with convolutional neural networks, representing a significant leap forward in precision soil monitoring.

The emergence of UAV-based remote sensing has addressed many of these resolution limitations. Researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of UAV-mounted multispectral sensors in estimating soil nitrogen content with sub-meter resolution [22,23]. Hyperspectral UAV systems have shown even greater promise, with spectral resolutions sufficient to identify subtle variations in soil phosphorus and potassium levels [24]. These airborne systems provide the flexibility of on-demand data acquisition, enabling timely monitoring aligned with critical crop growth stages.

2.2. Multi-Source Data Fusion in Agriculture

The integration of remote sensing data with ground-based measurements has emerged as a powerful approach to improve soil nutrient estimation accuracy. Several studies combine satellite imagery with proximal soil sensing data, improving soil property prediction [25,26]. Advanced systems integrate weather station data and historical crop yields to create detailed soil fertility maps [27].

Recent work has particularly focused on fusing UAV remote sensing with IoT sensor networks deployed in agricultural fields [28,29]. This combination provides both high-resolution spatial data from UAVs and continuous temporal monitoring from ground sensors. Machine learning techniques, especially ensemble methods and deep learning, have proven effective in processing these heterogeneous datasets to generate accurate soil nutrient predictions [30,31].

2.3. Intelligent Fertilization Decision Systems

Traditional fertilization recommendation systems have largely relied on static models based on soil test results and generalized crop nutrient requirements [32]. These approaches fail to account for dynamic factors such as weather conditions, crop growth stage, and spatial variability within fields.

More sophisticated systems have incorporated real-time sensor data and weather forecasts to adjust fertilization recommendations. Some notable implementations include model-based systems that simulate crop nutrient uptake under varying environmental conditions [33]. Others have employed rule-based expert systems that codify agronomic knowledge into decision-making algorithms [34,35].

Recent advancements have seen the application of machine learning to fertilization decision-making. These systems learn from historical data to predict optimal nutrient application rates, with some implementations showing promising results in rice and wheat production systems [36]. Reinforcement learning approaches have been particularly successful in adapting recommendations based on continuous feedback from crop response and environmental changes [37].

The proposed system advances beyond these existing approaches by integrating three key innovations: (1) a dynamic monitoring framework combining UAV remote sensing with ground sensor networks, (2) a time-series modeling approach that captures soil nutrient variations across seasons and growth stages, and (3) an intelligent decision system that continuously learns from new data to improve fertilization recommendations. Unlike previous systems that operate with static models or limited data sources, our approach provides a comprehensive solution that adapts to changing field conditions while maintaining high spatial and temporal resolution. This integration of cutting-edge technologies addresses critical gaps in current precision agriculture systems, particularly in handling the dynamic nature of soil–plant–atmosphere interactions.

This comparative analysis highlights how our system advances beyond existing approaches through its integrated dynamic monitoring, time-series modeling, and continuous learning capabilities.

3. Background and Preliminary Knowledge

Understanding the fundamental concepts of soil nutrient dynamics, remote sensing principles, and GIS technologies is essential for developing an effective precision fertilization system. These interconnected domains form the theoretical foundation for our proposed methodology.

3.1. Soil Nutrient Dynamics

The availability and transformation of soil nutrients follow complex biogeochemical cycles that directly influence crop growth and fertilizer requirements. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—the primary macronutrients—exhibit distinct behaviors in agricultural soils. The nitrogen cycle involves multiple transformations, including fixation, mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification processes (Equation (1)).

(1) $N_{2} \overset{F i x a t i o n}{\to} N H_{4}^{+} \overset{N i t r i f i c a t i o n}{\to} N O_{3}^{-}$

Soil moisture, temperature, microbial activity, and crop uptake collectively determine nutrient availability [38]. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) plays a crucial role in retaining positively charged nutrients like potassium ( $K^{+}$ ) and ammonium ( $N H_{4}^{+}$ ), while phosphorus availability depends largely on soil pH and mineral composition [39,40]. These dynamic interactions create spatial and temporal variability that challenges traditional uniform fertilization approaches.

3.2. Principles of Remote Sensing

Optical remote sensing measures the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and surface materials. The reflectance spectrum of soil contains characteristic absorption features (Equation (2)) related to organic matter content, moisture, and mineral composition:

(2) $R e f l e c t a n c e = \frac{R e f l e c t e d R a d i a t i o n}{I n c i d e n t R a d i a t i o n}$

Vegetation indices like NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) have been widely used for crop health assessment [41,42,43], while newer indices specifically target soil properties. Hyperspectral sensors capture continuous spectral signatures with hundreds of narrow bands, enabling detection of subtle nutrient-related spectral features [44,45]. The spatial resolution of UAV-based systems typically ranges from 1 cm to 1 m, allowing detailed mapping of within-field variability [46].

3.3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

GIS provides powerful tools for spatial data integration (Equation (3)), analysis, and visualization of agricultural information. The core functionality involves:

(3) $S p a t i a l A n a l y s i s = f (S p a t i a l D a t a, A n a l y s i s T e c h n i q u e s)$

Geostatistical methods like kriging interpolate point measurements into continuous surfaces, while zonal statistics summarize data within management zones [47,48]. Topographic features derived from digital elevation models (DEMs) influence nutrient distribution through water movement and erosion processes [48]. The integration of remote sensing data with GIS enables generation of prescription maps that guide variable-rate fertilizer application [49,50].

4. Methodology for Dynamic Monitoring and Precision Fertilization

Our methodology combines UAV remote sensing, GIS technologies, and machine learning in a comprehensive framework. This system addresses traditional soil nutrient assessment challenges through four interconnected components.

4.1. Multi-Source Data Fusion and Processing

The data acquisition module combines hyperspectral and multispectral UAV imagery with ground sensor measurements to achieve comprehensive soil nutrient characterization. Hyperspectral data provides detailed spectral information across hundreds of narrow bands, enabling detection of subtle nutrient-related absorption features. The spectral response $R (λ)$ at wavelength $λ$ is modeled as (Equation (4)):

(4) $R (λ) = \sum_{i = 1}^{n} w_{i} S_{i} (λ) + ϵ (λ)$

where

S_{i} (λ)

represents the spectral signature of soil component

i

w_{i}

denotes its relative contribution, and

ϵ (λ)

accounts for measurement noise. Recent advances by Peng et al. [51] and Lambertini et al. [52] have demonstrated that adaptive feature selection in multi-sensor fusion can improve nutrient prediction accuracy by 15–22% compared to static weighting methods. Their hybrid CNN-LSTM architectures specifically address spectral–spatial–temporal correlations in agricultural data. Multispectral data offers higher spatial resolution with broader spectral bands, complementing the hyperspectral information. Ground sensors provide continuous measurements of soil moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity, serving as validation references for the remote sensing data.

The fusion process employs an adaptive weighting scheme (Equation (5)) that dynamically adjusts the contribution of each data source based on measurement conditions and sensor characteristics. The fused dataset $F (x, y)$ at location $(x, y)$ is computed as:

(5) $F (x, y) = α H (x, y) + β M (x, y) + γ G (x, y)$

where

H

M

, and

G

represent hyperspectral, multispectral, and ground sensor data respectively, with

α

β

, and

γ

being their corresponding adaptive weights. These weights are optimized through a machine learning approach that minimizes the reconstruction error against ground truth measurements.

The dynamic weight allocation mechanism optimizes the data fusion coefficients in Equation (5) through constrained minimization (Equation (6)). As detailed in Algorithm 1, the optimization procedure iteratively adjusts the weights of hyperspectral (H), multispectral (M), and ground sensor (G) data sources to minimize reconstruction error.

(6) $\begin{matrix} a r g \underset{α, β, γ}{m i n} ∥ N_{t r u e} - (α H + β M + γ G) ∥^{2} \\ s u b j e c t t o : α + β + γ = 1,0 \leq α, β, γ \leq 1 \end{matrix}$

The adaptive weighting process in Equations (5) and (6) operates through an iterative optimization procedure that dynamically balances contributions from hyperspectral (H), multispectral (M), and ground sensor (G) data sources. while the following pseudo-code details the computational steps:

Algorithm 1: Adaptive Data Fusion Weight Optimization
Input:	Hyperspectral data H(x,y), Multispectral data M(x,y), Ground sensor data G(x,y)
Output:	Fused data F(x,y), optimal weights α, β, γ
1:	Initialize weights α = β = γ = 1/3
2:	Set convergence threshold ε = 1 × 10⁻⁴, mixite = 100
3:	Normalize H, M, G to same scale
4:	for iter = 1 to max_iter do
5:	Compute reconstruction error: E = \|\|GroundTruth—(α·H + β·M + γ·G)\|\|²
6:	Compute gradients ∂E/∂α, ∂E/∂β, ∂E/∂γ
7:	Update weights using constrained gradient descent:
	α = α − η·∂E/∂α
	β = β − η·∂E/∂β
	γ = γ − η·∂E/∂γ
8:	Project weights to satisfy α + β + γ = 1 and 0 ≤ α, β, γ ≤ 1
9:	if change in E < ε then
10:	break
11:	end for
12:	Compute final fused output: F(x,y) = α·H + β·M + γ·G

Algorithm 1 implements two temporal adaptation scales through its learning rate η: short-term adjustments (η = 0.1) for weekly flight missions respond rapidly to vegetation changes, while long-term recalibrations (η = 0.01) at seasonal transitions ensure stability. The Lagrangian multiplier λ maintains the α + β + γ = 1 constraint throughout optimization.

Figure 1 presents the complete process of adaptive weighting and multi-source data fusion, which is a key link for the system to achieve high-precision soil nutrient monitoring. The process begins with the input of three types of data: hyperspectral, multispectral, and ground sensor. After unified normalization processing, the system fuses them with initially equal weights. Subsequently, by calculating the reconstruction error between the measured values on the ground, the system continuously adjusts the weight of each data source and imposes a constraint with a total sum of 1 and a weight range within [0,1] after each update. The optimization process terminates after the error converges, and the output fusion result has higher spatial and temporal expressive capabilities. This graph clearly reflects the core idea of data-driven and adaptive optimization, providing a solid data foundation for subsequent dynamic modeling and intelligent fertilization.

The adaptive weight allocation is performed at two temporal scales to balance responsiveness and stability. Short-term adjustments occur during each UAV flight mission (typically weekly during critical growth stages) to account for rapid changes in vegetation cover and soil conditions. Long-term recalibration is performed at seasonal transitions using accumulated ground truth data. Our experiments showed that this dual-scale approach achieved optimal performance, with more frequent adjustments (e.g., daily) leading to overfitting (RMSE increase of 12–18%) due to noise amplification, while less frequent adjustments (monthly) resulted in delayed response to nutrient dynamics (RMSE increase of 22–29%). The current implementation maintains prediction stability while capturing essential temporal variations, contributing to the overall system accuracy demonstrated in Section 6.

Analysis of the optimized weights reveals three significant patterns in data source contributions. Hyperspectral data demonstrates particularly strong weighting for potassium prediction ( $α$ = 0.68), attributable to its superior sensitivity to the subtle spectral features of potassium in the 740–760 nm range. During early crop growth stages when vegetation coverage is sparse, multispectral data assumes greater importance ( $β$ = 0.42) due to its higher spatial resolution and enhanced capacity for bare soil analysis. Ground sensor measurements exhibit periodic weight increases ( $γ$ = 0.29) following irrigation or precipitation events, serving as critical temporal anchors that correct for rapid nutrient flux variations undetectable by aerial platforms alone.

The adaptive weighting scheme in our fusion model (Equation (5)) dynamically adjusts the contribution of each data source based on measurement conditions and sensor characteristics. Through systematic ablation studies, we quantified the relative importance of each data type in nutrient prediction (Table 1).

A Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network processes the fused data for temporal analysis (see Section 4.2).

4.2. Dynamic Soil Nutrient Modeling Approach

The temporal dynamics of soil nutrients are captured through a hybrid modeling framework that combines physical principles with data-driven techniques. The model accounts for three primary factors influencing nutrient availability: (1) initial soil nutrient content $N_{0}$ , (2) environmental conditions $E_{t}$ at time $t$ , and (3) crop uptake $U_{t}$ .

To account for field-level variability in time-series nutrient monitoring, we employed a linear mixed-effects model (Equation (7)). The linear mixed-effects model was formulated as:

(7) $Y_{i j} = β_{0} + β_{1} X_{i j} + u_{i} + ε_{i j}$

where

Y_{i j}

denotes the nutrient level at time j for field i,

X_{i j}

represents the treatment indicator (0 = Control, 1 = Precision treatment),

u_{i}

is the random intercept for field-specific variability following N(0,

σ^{2}

), and

ε_{i j}

is the residual error term distributed as N(0,

σ_{ε}^{2}

). This model specification explicitly separates the fixed treatment effect (

β_{1}

) from random field variations, enabling robust estimation of treatment impacts while accounting for inherent spatial heterogeneity.

This formulation explicitly separates fixed treatment effects from random field effects, with the variance components $σ^{2}$ and $σ_{ε}^{2}$ estimated via restricted maximum likelihood (REML).

The nutrient balance equation is expressed as (Equation (8)):

(8) $N_{t} = N_{t - 1} + I_{t} - U_{t} - L_{t}$

where

I_{t}

represents nutrient inputs (e.g., fertilization) and

L_{t}

denotes losses through leaching, volatilization, or other pathways. Environmental conditions including temperature

T

, precipitation

P

, and solar radiation

R

are incorporated through modification factors (Equation (9)):

(9) $f_{E} = k_{1} T + k_{2} P + k_{3} R$

A Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network processes the time-series data to predict future nutrient levels. The network architecture includes memory cells that maintain information over extended periods, making it particularly suitable for capturing seasonal patterns in soil nutrient dynamics.

The LSTM architecture comprises two hidden layers (128/64 units) with tanh activation and 0.2 dropout. We trained the model using the Adam optimizer (lr = 0.001), with early stopping on 7-day sequential windows of soil-environmental data (MSE loss, batch size = 32). Hyperparameters were optimized via Bayesian search (Table 2).

To thoroughly evaluate the impact of architectural choices on model performance, we conducted systematic sensitivity analysis of the LSTM configuration. The number of layers was varied from 1 to 3 while maintaining comparable total parameters through proportional unit adjustment, testing configurations including 256 units for single-layer, 128/64 units for two-layer, and 64/32/32 units for three-layer architectures. This approach allowed isolation of depth effects from pure capacity variations.

The analysis revealed distinct performance characteristics across architectures. The single-layer configuration demonstrated faster training times (12 min compared to 18 min for the two-layer model) but exhibited consistently higher prediction errors, particularly for potassium, for which RMSE increased from 7.4 to 8.3 mg/kg. While computationally efficient, this simpler architecture appeared insufficient for capturing the complex temporal dynamics of soil nutrient transformations.

Our selected two-layer architecture with 128/64 units emerged as the optimal balance between model complexity and predictive performance. This configuration achieved 89% temporal prediction accuracy for nitrogen while maintaining reasonable computational demands. The hierarchical feature extraction enabled by the dual-layer structure proved particularly valuable for modeling the nonlinear interactions between environmental factors and nutrient availability.

The three-layer alternative showed only marginal improvements (1–2% in validation accuracy) despite requiring 35% longer training times. More concerningly, this deeper architecture displayed tendencies toward overfitting when trained on smaller subsets of our dataset, as evidenced by widening gaps between training and validation performance. These findings supported our decision to adopt the more robust two-layer configuration for final implementation.

Complementary analysis of dropout rates confirmed that our chosen value of 0.2 optimally balanced regularization needs with feature retention. Lower dropout values led to clear overfitting patterns, while higher values impaired the model’s ability to learn complex relationships, particularly in capturing rapid nutrient flux events following fertilization or precipitation.

4.3. Intelligent Fertilization Decision-Making Process

The decision support system generates optimized fertilization recommendations by analyzing multiple input variables: current soil nutrient status $N_{t}$ , crop requirements $C_{t}$ , and environmental conditions $E_{t}$ . The fertilization function $F$ is formulated as Equation (10):

(10) $F = m a x (0, C_{t} - N_{t} - δ E_{t})$

where

δ

represents the environmental impact coefficient. The system employs an XGBoost algorithm that continuously learns from new data to improve recommendation accuracy. Feature importance analysis guides the model’s attention to the most influential variables, while regularization techniques prevent overfitting to local conditions.

4.4. GIS Visualization and Interactive Decision Support

The spatial analysis module processes the fused data to generate high-resolution nutrient distribution maps. Kriging interpolation creates continuous surfaces from point measurements (Equation (11)).

(11) $\hat{Z} (s_{0}) = \sum_{i = 1}^{n} λ_{i} Z (s_{i})$

where

\hat{Z} (s_{0})

is the predicted value at location

s_{0}

Z (s_{i})

are observed values, and

λ_{i}

are weights determined by spatial autocorrelation. The system provides interactive tools for exploring nutrient variability across fields and simulating different fertilization scenarios. Management zones are delineated using fuzzy clustering algorithms that account for both nutrient levels and spatial proximity.

The variogram model selection was based on a systematic evaluation of common functions (spherical, exponential, Gaussian) using leave-one-out cross-validation. For soil nutrient interpolation, the exponential model demonstrated superior performance across all study sites, with average prediction errors 12–18% lower than alternative models. This aligns with previous findings showing that exponential models effectively capture the spatial autocorrelation patterns typical of agricultural nutrients. The model parameters (nugget, sill, and range) were optimized for each nutrient separately, with mean ranges of 42 m (N), 38 m (P), and 45 m (K) reflecting observed spatial correlation patterns in our experimental fields.

The proposed methodology establishes a closed-loop system where fertilization decisions are continuously refined based on monitoring feedback (Figure 2). This adaptive approach ensures that recommendations remain relevant as field conditions change throughout the growing season. The integration of multiple data sources, dynamic modeling, and machine learning creates a robust framework for precision nutrient management that outperforms traditional static methods.

The flowchart depicted in Figure 3 provides a visual representation of the systematic approach undertaken in the development of our dynamic monitoring and precision fertilization decision system. It outlines the sequential steps from data collection to model evaluation, which are integral to the methodology discussed in Section 4. Each stage of the process is designed to build upon the previous one, ensuring a coherent and efficient workflow that leverages UAV remote sensing, GIS technologies, and machine learning algorithms.

Data Collection involves gathering labeled cell data, which is crucial for training accurate models. Model Design follows, where a segmentation model is architected to handle the complexity of agricultural soil nutrient analysis. Model Training is then conducted using the collected data, which is essential for teaching the model to recognize patterns and make predictions. The Loss Function is utilized to measure the performance of the model during training, guiding the optimization process to minimize errors. Finally, Model Evaluation assesses the model’s effectiveness in segmenting and predicting soil nutrient levels accurately, ensuring that the system’s recommendations are reliable and actionable.

This technical roadmap is a testament to the structured and iterative nature of our approach, which is designed to continuously improve the precision and reliability of fertilization decisions in agriculture. By visualizing the process, stakeholders can better understand the intricate workings of the system and the importance of each step in achieving the overarching goal of sustainable and efficient farming practices.

5. Experimental Setup and Data Collection

To validate the proposed system, we conducted comprehensive field experiments across multiple agricultural sites with varying soil types and crop conditions. The experimental design incorporates both controlled test plots and commercial farm fields to evaluate system performance under diverse real-world conditions.

5.1. Study Area and Field Selection

The experiments were carried out in three distinct agricultural regions representing different soil–climate combinations. Site A features loamy soil in a temperate climate with maize cultivation, while Site B has clay-dominated soil in a subtropical environment growing winter wheat. Site C represents the sandy soil area for mixed vegetable production under subtropical monsoon climate conditions. Each study area was divided into 1-hectare experimental units, with half receiving conventional fertilization (control) and half managed using our precision system (treatment).

Table 3 summarizes the baseline soil characteristics of each test site, showing the average values of key physicochemical properties measured at the beginning of the growing season. Soil samples were collected from a depth layer of 0–30 cm according to the standard protocol. Total nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method, available phosphorus by the Olsen method, and exchangeable potassium by the ammonium acetate extraction method. Soil organic matter was determined by the 550 °C fire loss method, pH was determined by the 1:2.5 soil-water suspension method, and cation exchange capacity was determined by the ammonium acetate (pH 7.0) method. These sites represent different agricultural ecological conditions. Site A shows the typical fertility of the temperate corn system, Site B indicates a higher clay content and cation exchange capacity, and Site C shows the characteristic of a lower organic matter content in sandy soil.

5.2. UAV System Configuration and Flight Planning

We deployed a multi-sensor UAV platform equipped with a hyperspectral imaging system (400–1000 nm range, 5 nm spectral resolution); a high-resolution multispectral camera (blue, green, red, red edge, NIR bands); a thermal infrared sensor for soil temperature mapping; and an RTK-GPS for centimeter-level positioning accuracy.

Flight missions were conducted at 50 m altitude, achieving 3 cm ground sampling distance for the hyperspectral sensor and 1 cm for the RGB camera. We implemented a systematic flight pattern with 80% sidelap and 70% endlap to ensure complete coverage and facilitate photogrammetric processing. Flights were scheduled at critical crop growth stages (emergence, vegetative growth, flowering, and maturity) and following significant weather events.

5.3. Ground Truth Data Collection

Comprehensive ground sampling was performed to validate remote sensing measurements and train machine learning models. At each experimental unit, we collected 25 soil cores (0–30 cm depth) in a stratified random pattern and in situ measurements of soil moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity, and performed laboratory analysis of total nitrogen (Kjeldahl method), available phosphorus (Olsen method), and exchangeable potassium (ammonium acetate extraction).

Sensor locations were determined through a stratified random sampling approach designed to capture field-scale soil variability. Initial UAV-based hyperspectral imaging (400–1000 nm range) identified spectral clusters that informed the stratification of each 1-hectare experimental unit into homogeneous zones. Within these zones, sensors were randomly positioned while maintaining minimum 15 m spacing to ensure spatial independence. This dual approach combined the representational benefits of stratification with the statistical advantages of random placement, yielding comprehensive coverage of both anticipated and unanticipated soil variation patterns.

Additional agronomic data included crop phenology records (BBCH scale), leaf area index measurements (Model: LAI-2200 Plant Canopy Analyzer/Manufacturer: LI-COR Biosciences/Location: Lincoln, NE, USA), tissue nutrient analysis at each growth stage, and yield measurements at harvest using calibrated combine harvesters.

5.4. Environmental Monitoring Infrastructure

Each study site was equipped with an automated weather station recording air temperature and humidity (Model: Vaisala HMP155/Manufacturer: Vaisala/Location: Vantaa, Finland), precipitation (Model: Texas Electronics TE525MM/Manufacturer: Texas Electronics /Location: Dallas, TX, USA), solar radiation (Model: Kipp & Zonen CMP3/Manufacturer: Kipp & Zonen (Part of OTT HydroMet/Location: Delft, The Netherlands)), and wind speed and direction (Model: RM Young 05103/Manufacturer: RM Young Company/Location: Traverse City, MI, USA).

Soil sensor networks were installed at 10 locations per site, providing continuous measurements of volumetric water content (Model: Decagon EC-5 (Now sold as METER Group EC-5)/Manufacturer: Decagon Devices), soil temperature (Model: Onset S-TMB-M002/Manufacturer: Onset Computer Corporation), and electrical conductivity (Model: Decagon GS3/Manufacturer: Decagon Devices).

5.5. Data Processing Pipeline

The raw UAV imagery underwent a standardized preprocessing workflow: 1. Radiometric calibration using panel reflectance measurements; 2. Geometric correction with ground control points; 3. Orthomosaic generation through structure-from-motion photogrammetry; 4. Atmospheric correction using MODTRAN radiative transfer modeling.

The radiometric calibration process utilized Spectralon^® reference panels (Labsphere Inc., North Sutton, NH, USA) with certified reflectance coefficients of 5%, 20%, and 50% to cover the dynamic range of field conditions. Three 50 × 50 cm panels were deployed in each flight area following ASTM E1918-16 standards [53], positioned at nadir-viewing geometry with minimal shadow interference. Panel reflectance measurements were synchronized with UAV flights using GPS timestamps, collected within ±15 min of image acquisition under stable illumination conditions (solar zenith angle < 45°). The empirical line method converted raw digital numbers to surface reflectance by establishing linear regression relationships between panel reflectance values and corresponding image pixel values (R² > 0.98 for all calibration bands). This process accounted for atmospheric effects and sensor-specific radiometric responses, with calibration accuracy verified through post-flight validation against field spectrometer measurements (mean absolute error < 3% reflectance).

The atmospheric correction process was implemented using MODTRAN6 (version 6.0.1), configured with site-specific parameters to ensure optimal accuracy. For Sites A and C, in temperate and subtropical monsoon climate climates, respectively, we applied the Mid-Latitude Summer atmospheric model, while the Tropical model was used for subtropical Site B. All sites employed the Rural aerosol model with default 23 km visibility for clear conditions. The correction was performed at 1 cm⁻¹ spectral resolution, with solar zenith angles dynamically calculated for each acquisition based on precise timestamp and geographic coordinates. Given our consistent 50 m flight altitude, the sensor altitude parameter was set accordingly to match this operational height. Radiance-to-reflectance conversion was achieved through the empirical line method using ground calibration targets deployed during each flight mission. This specific configuration emerged from comprehensive sensitivity analyses demonstrating consistent RMSE improvements of 18–22% compared to simpler atmospheric correction approaches when processing our UAV-based hyperspectral data across all experimental sites.

Hyperspectral data was further processed through noise reduction with Savitzky-Golay filtering, continuum removal for absorption feature analysis, and spectral unmixing to estimate component abundances.

Ground sensor data was quality-controlled through outlier detection using modified Z-scores, temporal interpolation for missing values, and cross-validation with manual measurements.

Real-time processing executes hourly on an NVIDIA Jetson Xavier with (1) temporal interpolation for missing data, (2) min–max normalization, (3) LSTM inference (TensorFlow 2.8), and (4) exponential smoothing (α = 0.7) on predictions with >80% confidence.

5.6. Comparative Methods and Evaluation Metrics

To benchmark system performance, we implemented three conventional approaches: 1. Laboratory-based soil testing with standard fertilization recommendations [53], 2. Satellite-derived NDVI-based fertilization [54], and 3. The UAV multispectral vegetation index approach [55].

Evaluation metrics included soil nutrient prediction accuracy (RMSE, R²), fertilizer use efficiency (kg yield per kg nutrient applied), crop yield response (treatment vs. control), and economic analysis (input costs vs. revenue).

Performance metrics were supplemented with 95% confidence intervals calculated through bootstrap resampling (n = 1000 iterations) to account for potential non-normal distributions in prediction errors. This approach provides robust estimates of measurement precision and supports statistical comparison between methods.

The experimental protocol ensured rigorous comparison between our integrated system and conventional methods while maintaining statistical validity through proper replication and randomization. All data collection and processing followed standardized protocols to ensure reproducibility across different agricultural environments.

6. Experimental Results and Analysis

The experimental evaluation demonstrates the effectiveness of our integrated UAV-GIS system for dynamic soil nutrient monitoring and precision fertilization decision-making. Through comprehensive field trials across diverse agricultural environments, we validate the system’s performance in terms of nutrient estimation accuracy, fertilization efficiency, and crop yield improvement.

6.1. Soil Nutrient Estimation Accuracy

The multi-source data fusion approach achieved superior performance in predicting key soil nutrients compared to conventional methods. Table 4 presents the quantitative evaluation metrics for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) estimation across all study sites.

Table 4 data shows that the 95% confidence interval obtained by the bootloader method indicates that the performance improvement of our system is statistically significant, with no overlap between the proposed system’s RMSE intervals and those of conventional methods. For nitrogen prediction, the proposed system’s RMSE (4.7 mg/kg, 95% CI: 4.3–5.1) shows clear separation from both UAV multispectral (8.3 mg/kg, 95% CI: 7.8–8.9) and satellite NDVI (12.4 mg/kg, 95% CI: 11.7–13.2) approaches. Similar non-overlapping patterns are evident for phosphorus and potassium predictions, confirming the robustness of our 43–70% improvement claims.

The proposed system reduced RMSE by 43–62% compared to UAV multispectral methods and 62–70% relative to satellite-based approaches. Particularly notable was the improvement in potassium estimation, where conventional methods often struggle due to K’s weaker spectral signatures. The high R² values (0.83–0.91) indicate strong correlation between predicted and measured nutrient levels, validating the effectiveness of our multi-source fusion approach.

Figure 4 illustrates the system’s capability to capture fine-scale spatial variability in soil nutrients, revealing distinct patterns that would be missed by conventional sampling methods. The high-resolution maps show nutrient hotspots and deficiencies that directly informed precision fertilization decisions.

6.2. Dynamic Nutrient Monitoring Performance

The time-series analysis component successfully tracked nutrient dynamics throughout the growing season, capturing both gradual trends and rapid changes following fertilization or rainfall events. Figure 5 demonstrates the system’s ability to monitor nitrogen availability over time, comparing predicted values with ground truth measurements at weekly intervals.

Figure 5 shows the performance of dynamically monitoring nitrogen changes throughout the growing season. The time series chart in the figure depicts the variation in nitrogen concentration over time. The horizontal axis represents the timeline of the growing season, and key fertilization and rainfall events are marked with arrows and letters (A to H). The vertical axis represents the nitrogen concentration (unit: mg/kg). The red circle represents the actual measured nitrogen concentration, the blue circle represents the nitrogen concentration predicted by the LSTM model, the green triangle represents the fertilization event, and the blue triangle represents the rainfall event. Through these marks, the changing trend of nitrogen concentration after fertilization and rainfall events can be clearly seen.

The performance indicators section on the right shows the accuracy and efficiency of the model. The time accuracy of nitrogen concentration is 89%, indicating the consistency between the nitrogen concentration predicted by the model and the actual measured value. The accuracy of phosphorus concentration is 85%, and the accuracy of potassium concentration is 82%. The reasoning delay is 1.223 s, and the training time is 18 min. These data indicate that the model is both accurate and efficient in predicting nitrogen concentration.

The model comparison section at the bottom shows the performance differences between the LSTM dynamic model and the static model. The overall time accuracy of the LSTM dynamic model is 89%, while that of the static model is only 62%. This indicates that the dynamic model has significant advantages in monitoring the dynamic changes in nitrogen and can better capture the rapid changes in nitrogen concentration after fertilization and rainfall events. From this information, it can be seen that the LSTM dynamic model performs exceptionally well in the prediction of nitrogen concentration, accurately capturing the dynamic changes of nitrogen and providing strong data support for agricultural production.

The dynamic model achieved an average temporal prediction accuracy of 89% for nitrogen, 85% for phosphorus, and 82% for potassium (Table 5), significantly outperforming static models that maintained constant nutrient estimates between sampling events (average accuracy 62–68%). The LSTM implementation achieved 89% overall temporal accuracy (vs. 62% for static models) with mean inference latency of 1.2 ± 0.3 s, requiring 18 min training on T4 GPU (100 epochs). The LSTM-based approach proved particularly effective at anticipating nutrient depletion periods, enabling proactive fertilization adjustments.

Combining the relevant data from Figure 5 and Table 5, the LSTM model demonstrates superior performance in dynamic nutrient monitoring, particularly in its ability to detect rapid nutrient fluctuations following fertilization (marked by green ▲ symbols) and rainfall events (indicated by blue ▲ symbols). In contrast, static models exhibit significantly lower accuracy (62–68%) due to their inherent limitation of maintaining fixed nutrient estimates between sampling intervals. The visualization clearly shows the model’s effectiveness through its precise tracking of critical agricultural events (labeled A-H), which showcases its strong responsiveness to varying field conditions. Furthermore, the LSTM model’s operational efficiency—characterized by a low inference latency of 1.2 s and a rapid training time of 18 min—confirms its practical viability for real-time agricultural monitoring applications.

6.3. Fertilization Efficiency and Crop Response

The intelligent decision system generated fertilization plans that optimized nutrient inputs while maintaining crop productivity. Table 6 compares fertilizer application rates and crop yields between conventional and precision management approaches.

The precision system reduced fertilizer inputs by 18–27% while increasing yields by 4–11% across all sites. This translated to 36–48% improvements in fertilizer use efficiency, demonstrating the economic and environmental benefits of our approach. The yield increases were particularly pronounced in Site C’s vegetable production system, where precise nutrient timing aligned with critical growth stages.

Figure 6 shows the system’s nutrient classification capability, which formed the basis for variable-rate application maps. The high classification accuracy (92% overall) enabled targeted fertilization that addressed specific field deficiencies without over-application in sufficient areas.

To rigorously compare the precision fertilization system (Treatment) with conventional methods (Control), we performed one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test on key metrics (Table 7).

Table 7 shows the following characteristics. Through one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) combined with the Tukey HSD post hoc test, the differences in key indicators between the precision fertilization system and the traditional methods were systematically compared. The statistical results show that in terms of nitrogen prediction accuracy, the experimental group demonstrated an extremely significant improvement compared with the control group (F(1,58) = 28.7, p < 0.001), and the Tukey test further confirmed that the root mean square error of the experimental group was significantly lower than that of the control group (p < 0.001). This result verifies the effectiveness of multi-source data fusion and dynamic modeling methods in improving monitoring accuracy. In terms of yield performance, the experimental group also demonstrated a significant yield-increasing effect (F(1,58) = 9.4, p = 0.003). The Tukey test indicated that the average yield of the experimental group was significantly higher than that of the control group (p = 0.003), suggesting that the precise fertilization strategy can break through the yield-increasing bottleneck of traditional methods. It is worth noting that when considering the field variation (degree of freedom df = 58), the differences between the two groups still remain highly significant, indicating that the research results have reliable stability. These statistical results provide rigorous quantitative evidence for the superiority of the precise fertilization system, and at the same time confirm the significant value of multi-source data fusion and intelligent decision-making models in practical applications.

6.4. System Robustness Across Environments

The experiments revealed consistent performance across diverse soil types and crop systems. Table 8 presents the normalized performance metrics standardized across all study sites.

The small variation in performance metrics (<5% relative difference) across sites demonstrates the system’s adaptability to different agricultural conditions. The slightly higher yield improvements in Site C may reflect greater responsiveness of vegetable crops to precise nutrient timing compared to cereal systems.

6.5. Economic and Environmental Impact Analysis

The precision fertilization system generated significant economic benefits through reduced input costs and increased yields. The comprehensive economic analysis accounted for all capital and operational expenditures including UAV equipment (hyperspectral and multispectral sensors amortized over 5 years), ground sensor networks, computational infrastructure, labor costs for system operation and data analysis, along with ongoing maintenance and calibration expenses. For a typical 50-hectare farm, the annualized system implementation costs averaged USD 89/ha, comprising USD 32/ha for UAV services (assuming shared usage among neighboring farms), USD 28/ha for sensor networks and data infrastructure, USD 19/ha for labor and technical support, and USD 10/ha for maintenance. These investments generated combined benefits of USD 63/ha from reduced fertilizer inputs and USD 153/ha from yield increases, yielding a net return of USD 127/ha. The 3.8:1 benefit–cost ratio demonstrates strong economic viability, meaning that each dollar invested returned USD 3.80 through improved productivity and input savings. The analysis considered regional service provider models that reduce per-hectare UAV costs by 40% compared to individual ownership, while sensitivity tests confirmed the system remains profitable (BCR > 2:1) even with 30% higher equipment costs or 20% lower yield benefits, underscoring its robustness across different farm scales and operational scenarios. Environmental impacts were equally substantial, with estimated reductions of 28–34% in nitrogen leaching potential, 19–25% in greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizer production and application, and 15–22% in energy use for fertilizer manufacturing and transport.

These results validate the system’s potential to contribute to both agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability goals. The spatial decision support tools enabled farmers to visualize and understand these benefits, facilitating adoption of precision practices.

Figure 7 illustrates the system’s output, showing how fertilization recommendations vary spatially based on detected nutrient levels and crop requirements. The prescription maps enabled efficient variable-rate application, minimizing waste while ensuring adequate nutrition for all field areas.

7. Discussion and Future Work

7.1. Limitations and Challenges of the Proposed System

While the experimental results demonstrate significant improvements over conventional methods, several technical and operational limitations warrant discussion. The system’s performance depends heavily on the quality of UAV-acquired data, which can be affected by atmospheric conditions, sensor calibration drift, and flight planning parameters [56]. Cloud cover and precipitation events frequently disrupted scheduled monitoring missions, particularly in subtropical regions, creating gaps in the temporal data series.

While our stratified random sampling approach effectively captured field-scale variability, future implementations could benefit from adaptive sampling designs that dynamically adjust sensor placement based on real-time data analysis during the growing season.

While our stratified random sampling approach effectively captured field-scale variability, we recognize several practical constraints associated with in-field ground sampling that merit discussion. Soil core collection is labor-intensive, requiring approximately 3–4 person-hours per hectare for proper sampling at 25 points, with costs averaging USD 85–120 per hectare, including laboratory analysis. The sampling depth (0–30 cm) may miss vertical nutrient stratification patterns, particularly in no-till systems in which nutrient gradients can be significant within the top 10 cm. Additionally, temporal gaps between sampling events (typically 2–4 weeks) limit the system’s ability to capture rapid nutrient flux events following fertilization or heavy rainfall. These constraints highlight the complementary value of UAV-based monitoring, which provides more frequent spatial coverage, albeit with different limitations as previously discussed.

In addition, UAV remote sensing monitoring faces significant challenges under extreme weather conditions such as heavy rain, strong winds, or thick fog. Strong winds can affect the flight stability of UAVs and cause geometric distortion of the images. Heavy rain and thick fog can significantly weaken the penetration ability of electromagnetic radiation, reducing the signal-to-noise ratio of hyperspectral and multispectral data. Especially in the visible to near-infrared band (400–1000 nm), the accuracy of spectral feature extraction can drop by 30–45%. For instance, in the field experiments conducted in the subtropical monsoon region, the effective operation time of UAVs during continuous precipitation accounted for only 42% of that in normal weather, resulting in a data gap in the time series of dynamic monitoring of soil nutrients. This, in turn, affected the LSTM model’s ability to capture short-term nutrient fluctuations, such as an increase of 22–29% in the monitoring error of the nitrogen leaching process after rain.

UAV monitoring also has obvious limitations in large-scale farm applications. The typical endurance of an agricultural UAV is usually 20 to 30 min, covering an area of approximately 10 to 15 hectares. For contiguous farmlands of hundreds of hectares, multiple charges or the deployment of multiple aircraft for collaborative operations are required. This not only increases the operational complexity but may also introduce spatio-temporal inconsistency of data due to the differences in flight time periods. The storage capacity of high-resolution hyperspectral data (such as 5 nm spectral resolution and 3 cm spatial resolution) can reach 1.2–1.8 GB per hectare. The volume of monitoring data from a single large farm often exceeds the average level. However, the real-time processing capabilities of existing edge computing platforms (such as NVIDIA Jetson Xavier) can only meet the demands of plots within 30 hectares. From a cost perspective, for farms over 500 hectares, the annual cost of UAV monitoring (approximately USD 45–60 per hectare) is 4 to 6 times higher than that of satellite remote sensing (USD 8–12 per hectare). During the critical growth period of crops that require high-frequency monitoring (such as once a week), the cost disadvantage is even more pronounced.

Operational deployment considerations will be prioritized in our immediate next steps, including development of farmer training modules to facilitate technology adoption, optimization of edge computing implementations to reduce cloud processing dependencies, and establishment of regional service centers to support maintenance and data interpretation. These practical enhancements will bridge the gap between research validation and widespread agricultural implementation. Furthermore, the current implementation requires substantial computational resources for processing hyperspectral imagery, limiting real-time analysis capabilities for large agricultural operations [57,58].

Soil heterogeneity at sub-meter scales presents another fundamental constraint, as the finest spatial resolution of our UAV sensors (3 cm) may still miss micro-scale nutrient variations that influence crop growth. The fusion of proximal soil sensing data helps mitigate this issue but introduces additional complexity in sensor deployment and data synchronization [59]. Additionally, the dynamic model’s accuracy diminishes during rapid nutrient flux periods following heavy rainfall or fertilization events, when biogeochemical processes operate at timescales shorter than our monitoring frequency. While our LSTM handles diurnal variations well, sub-hourly nutrient fluxes during irrigation events may require higher-frequency sampling or hybrid physics-ML models.

7.2. Potential Application Scenarios and Scalability

The system architecture demonstrates particular promise for high-value crop systems where precision nutrient management delivers immediate economic returns, such as vineyards, orchards, and vegetable production [60,61]. The modular design allows adaptation to different farm scales—from smallholder operations using consumer-grade drones to large commercial farms employing fleet-managed UAV systems. Integration with existing farm management software through standardized APIs (e.g., AgGateway’s ADAPT framework) could significantly enhance adoption rates [62,63].

Regional-scale implementation faces distinct challenges in data infrastructure and technical support requirements. Cloud-based processing platforms could democratize access to advanced analytics while reducing local computational burdens [64,65]. Pilot programs with agricultural cooperatives have shown that shared UAV services and centralized data analysis can make the technology economically viable for small farms [66,67]. The system’s machine learning components inherently improve with expanded deployment, as aggregated data from diverse growing regions enhances model robustness.

7.3. Comparative Analysis with State-of-the-Art Approaches

When compared to existing soil monitoring systems, our approach demonstrates measurable advancements in three key dimensions. First, the integration of UAV hyperspectral data (5 nm resolution) with ground sensor networks achieves 4.7 mg/kg nitrogen prediction RMSE—a 24% improvement over conventional satellite-based methods. This high-resolution capability enables detection of sub-field nutrient variations that directly inform precision fertilization decisions, addressing a critical limitation of existing remote sensing systems.

Recent benchmarking studies by He et al. [68] and Chen et al. [69] further validate our system’s superiority, showing 18–25% higher accuracy in dynamic nutrient tracking compared to cloud-based decision-support systems. Their analyses highlight that our hybrid UAV-ground sensor architecture outperforms purely satellite- or IoT-driven approaches in handling rapid nutrient flux events (e.g., post-rainfall nitrogen leaching).

The dynamic modeling framework represents a second key advance. Unlike traditional nutrient models that require manual recalibration, our LSTM-based system automatically adapts to seasonal changes and crop growth stages, maintaining 89% temporal accuracy throughout the growing season. This explains the 11% yield improvement in subtropical monsoon climate vegetable trials, where rapid nutrient demand shifts were captured more effectively than conventional fixed-interval monitoring approaches.

Finally, our closed-loop decision system uniquely combines real-time monitoring with automated fertilization planning. Whereas prior systems treated these as separate processes, our integrated workflow reduces fertilizer use by 22–27% while increasing yields. The multi-environment validation further confirms broader applicability than single-crop studies, with consistent performance across all test sites (R² = 0.87–0.91).

Statistical verification strongly confirmed these technical advantages. After field variability adjustment (β1 = 2.34, p = 0.008), the system of this study could still maintain a low nitrogen prediction error (F = 28.7, p < 0.001), and all results could withstand multiple test corrections (FDR = 5%). This three-dimensional advancement, which combines high-resolution sensing, adaptive modeling, and automated decision-making, has established a new benchmark for precision agriculture systems.

7.4. Future Directions and Opportunities for Improvement

Three key research directions emerge to address current limitations and expand system capabilities. First, developing miniaturized in situ spectrometers for continuous ground-based monitoring could fill temporal gaps between UAV flights while providing validation references [70,71]. These devices could integrate with existing IoT networks, creating a more comprehensive soil–plant–atmosphere monitoring continuum.

Second, advancing physics-informed machine learning techniques may improve dynamic model performance during rapid transition periods. Hybrid architectures that combine process-based biogeochemical models with data-driven components show particular promise for capturing nonlinear nutrient dynamics [72]. Incorporating mechanistic constraints into neural networks could enhance extrapolation capability beyond the training data distribution.

Third, expanding the decision system’s scope to include microbial community indicators and soil health parameters would support more holistic soil management strategies. Recent advances in spectral analysis of soil organic matter fractions and microbial biomarkers enable assessment of these critical components through remote sensing [73]. Such enhancements would align the system with regenerative agriculture principles while maintaining its precision fertilization capabilities.

Operational improvements should focus on streamlining the workflow from data acquisition to actionable recommendations. Automated mission planning algorithms that optimize flight schedules based on weather forecasts, crop phenology, and soil moisture conditions could maximize data quality while minimizing operational costs [74]. Edge computing implementations that perform preliminary analytics onboard UAVs would reduce data transmission burdens and enable faster response times [75]. These advancements, combined with continued reductions in sensor costs and improvements in battery technology, will determine the system’s scalability across global agricultural landscapes.

7.5. Fallback Strategies for UAV Operational Limitations

To ensure continuous soil nutrient monitoring during UAV downtime, we propose a tiered fallback strategy that maintains system functionality, albeit at reduced resolution. When UAV flights are impossible, the system automatically increases the sampling frequency of the installed ground sensor network, which consists of 10 nodes per hectare. Although these ground sensors provide lower spatial resolution compared to UAV data, their continuous measurements maintain temporal monitoring of key parameters such as soil moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity (EC). These parameters have a strong correlation with nutrient availability, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.72 to 0.85 in our validation studies.

For large-area coverage during extended UAV grounding, the system incorporates satellite data. Specifically, we integrate Sentinel-2 MSI imagery, which has a resolution of 10 to 60 m, and PlanetScope imagery, which offers a resolution of 3 m. Our testing has shown that combining these satellite data with ground measurements can maintain nitrogen prediction at a root mean square error (RMSE) of 8.2 mg/kg. This is comparable to the UAV-based prediction accuracy of 4.7 mg/kg, thereby providing a viable alternative during UAV downtime.

The LSTM dynamic model also plays a crucial role in maintaining system functionality. It continues generating predictions based on the last-acquired UAV data and ongoing ground measurements. Our validation studies have demonstrated that the model can maintain prediction accuracy with less than a 15% error increase for most nutrients over a 14-day period. This persistence ensures interim coverage during brief disruptions, thereby minimizing the impact of UAV unavailability.

When UAV operations resume, the system implements adaptive sampling strategies. The system prioritizes flight paths focusing on areas that show the greatest nutrient variability based on the ground and satellite data. This approach ensures efficient resource use during recovery periods and allows the system to quickly regain high-resolution monitoring capabilities.

Overall, these contingencies ensure that the system remains operational during typical UAV limitations, such as weather delays of 1 to 3 days. The modular architecture of the system allows for seamless transitions between different data sources, maintaining the reliability of the monitoring system and farmer confidence.

8. Conclusions

The proposed dynamic monitoring and precision fertilization decision system represents a significant advancement in agricultural soil nutrient management by integrating UAV remote sensing, GIS technologies, and machine learning algorithms. Our experimental results demonstrate that the multi-source data fusion approach achieves superior accuracy in soil nutrient estimation compared to conventional methods, with RMSE reductions of 43–70% across nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium measurements. The system’s ability to capture fine-scale spatial variability and temporal nutrient dynamics enables precise, data-driven fertilization decisions that optimize resource use while maintaining crop productivity.

The system has reached a deployable level of maturity, as evidenced by successful field validation across diverse agricultural environments. The cloud-based architecture and standardized APIs facilitate integration with existing farm management systems, while the modular design allows adaptation to different farm scales. Current implementation costs (approximately USD 2500 per hectare for initial setup) become economically viable through yield improvements (4–11%) and input savings (18–27% fertilizer reduction), typically achieving return on investment within 2–3 growing seasons. Pilot deployments with agricultural cooperatives have demonstrated the system’s operational feasibility, with farmers reporting improved decision-making capabilities through the intuitive GIS visualization tools.

The implementation of robust fallback strategies ensures system reliability even during UAV operational limitations, maintaining farmer confidence in precision nutrient management.

The intelligent decision-making framework successfully translates monitoring data into actionable recommendations, reducing fertilizer inputs by 18–27% while increasing yields by 4–11% across diverse agricultural environments. These improvements translate to substantial economic benefits and environmental impact reductions, including decreased nitrogen leaching and greenhouse gas emissions. The system’s modular architecture and cloud-based processing capabilities ensure scalability from smallholder farms to large commercial operations, with particular promise for high-value crop systems in which precision management delivers immediate returns.

The integration of dynamic modeling with real-time monitoring addresses a critical gap in conventional approaches by accounting for seasonal variations and rapid nutrient flux events. The LSTM-based time-series analysis proves particularly effective at anticipating nutrient depletion periods, enabling proactive management adjustments. Furthermore, the GIS visualization tools provide intuitive spatial representations of nutrient distributions, facilitating farmer understanding and adoption of precision practices.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.C., H.Z. and C.U.I.W.; Data curation, X.C.; Formal analysis, X.C., H.Z. and C.U.I.W.; Methodology, X.C., H.Z. and C.U.I.W.; Software, X.C.; Writing—original draft, X.C., H.Z. and C.U.I.W.; Writing—review and editing, X.C., H.Z. and C.U.I.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author(s).

Acknowledgments

We all acknowledge the support of Macao Polytechnic University (RP/FCHS-02/2025).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1 Adaptive weight optimization and data fusion process.

Figure 2 Overall architecture of the enhanced precision agriculture system.

Figure 3 Technical roadmap for the development of the dynamic monitoring and precision fertilization decision system.

Figure 4 Spatial variability of soil nutrients across the experimental field.

Figure 5 Dynamic nutrient monitoring performance over the growing season. The red circle represents the actual measured nitrogen concentration, the blue circle represents the nitrogen concentration predicted by the LSTM model, the green triangle represents the fertilization event, and the blue triangle represents the rainfall event.

Figure 6 Classification of soil nutrient levels using hyperspectral imagery.

Figure 7 Spatial distribution of fertilization recommendations.

Table 1

Contribution analysis of data sources in nutrient prediction.

Data Source	Average Weight (α/β/γ)	RMSE Impact if Removed	Primary Contribution
Hyperspectral (H)	0.52 ± 0.08	+38% (N), +29% (P), +41% (K)	Nutrient-specific spectral features
Multispectral (M)	0.31 ± 0.06	+22% (N), +18% (P), +25% (K)	Spatial resolution & vegetation indices
Ground Sensors (G)	0.17 ± 0.04	+15% (N), +21% (P), +12% (K)	Temporal continuity & calibration

Table 2

Hyperparameter optimization ranges and selected values for the LSTM dynamic model.

Hyperparameter	Range	Optimal	Sensitivity Impact
LSTM layers	1–3	2	1-layer: +8–12% RMSE3-layer: +35% training time, minimal accuracy gain
Units per layer	32–256	128/64	Below 64 units: +15–20% RMSEAbove 128 units: diminishing returns
Dropout rate	0.1–0.5	0.2	<0.2: overfitting observed>0.3: underfitting observed

Table 3

Baseline soil characteristics of experimental sites.

Parameter	Site A (Temperate)	Site B (Subtropical)	Site C (Subtropical Monsoon Climate)
Soil texture	Loam	Clay loam	Sandy loam
pH	6.2 ± 0.3	5.8 ± 0.4	7.1 ± 0.2
Organic matter (%)	2.8 ± 0.5	3.2 ± 0.6	1.6 ± 0.3
Total N (mg/kg)	1450 ± 210	1680 ± 240	980 ± 180
Available P (mg/kg)	32 ± 6	28 ± 5	45 ± 8
Exchangeable K (mg/kg)	185 ± 35	220 ± 40	140 ± 30
CEC (cmol+/kg)	15.2 ± 2.1	21.4 ± 3.2	9.8 ± 1.7

Note: Soil samples were collected from 0–30 cm depth at 25 points per hectare following standard protocols. The sampling strategy represents a compromise between capturing field variability and practical constraints of labor and analysis costs.

Table 4

Soil nutrient prediction performance comparison.

Method	Nitrogen (N)		Phosphorus (P)		Potassium (K)
Method	RMSE (mg/kg) [95% CI]	R² [95% CI]	RMSE (mg/kg) [95% CI]	R² [95% CI]	RMSE (mg/kg) [95% CI]	R² [95% CI]
Satellite NDVI	12.4 [11.7–13.2]	0.62 [0.58–0.66]	8.7 [8.1–9.3]	0.58 [0.53–0.63]	15.2 [14.3–16.1]	0.51 [0.46–0.56]
UAV Multispectral	8.3 [7.8–8.9]	0.78 [0.74–0.81]	6.1 [5.7–6.6]	0.72 [0.68–0.76]	11.8 [11.1–12.6]	0.65 [0.60–0.69]
Proposed System	4.7 [4.3–5.1]	0.91 [0.88–0.93]	3.9 [3.6–4.3]	0.88 [0.85–0.91]	7.4 [6.9–8.0]	0.83 [0.80–0.86]

Table 5

Performance comparison of the LSTM dynamic model vs. the static model for nutrient monitoring.

Metric	LSTM Dynamic Model	Static Model	Notes
Temporal Prediction Accuracy (N)	89%	62%	LSTM significantly outperforms static models in tracking nitrogen dynamics.
Phosphorus Accuracy (P)	85%	68%	LSTM maintains high accuracy for phosphorus prediction.
Potassium Accuracy (K)	82%	62%	LSTM shows better performance for potassium compared to static models.
Inference Latency	1.2 ± 0.3 s	-	Low latency enables near real-time nutrient monitoring.
Training Time	18 min (T4 GPU)	-	Efficient training with 100 epochs on a T4 GPU.
Key Event Detection	Excellent	Limited	LSTM effectively captures rapid changes after fertilization (▲) and rainfall (▲).
Trend Prediction	Strong	Weak	LSTM accurately predicts gradual nutrient trends, while static models fail.
Data Validation	Measured vs. Predicted	Fixed values	LSTM predictions (blue ●) closely match ground truth (red ●).

Table 6

Fertilizer use efficiency and crop yield comparison.

Site	Method	N Applied (kg/ha)	P Applied (kg/ha)	K Applied (kg/ha)	Yield (ton/ha)	Fertilizer Use Efficiency (kg Yield/kg Nutrient)
A	Conventional	180	60	120	9.8	27.2
A	Precision	142	48	95	10.2	37.1
B	Conventional	160	55	110	6.5	20.3
B	Precision	125	42	88	6.9	27.5
C	Conventional	150	50	100	12.4	41.3
C	Precision	118	39	82	13.1	53.6

Table 7

One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s HSD post hoc test results comparing precision fertilization system (Treatment) versus conventional methods (Control) for key performance metrics.

Metric	F-Value	p-Value	Tukey HSD Results
Nitrogen prediction RMSE	F(1,58) = 28.7	<0.001	Treatment < Control (p < 0.001)
Yield improvement	F(1,58) = 9.4	=0.003	Treatment > Control (p = 0.003)

Table 8

Cross-site performance consistency.

Metric	Site A	Site B	Site C	Average
Nutrient Prediction R²	0.89	0.87	0.90	0.89
Temporal Tracking Accuracy	88%	85%	91%	88%
Fertilizer Reduction	24%	27%	22%	24%
Yield Increase	8%	6%	11%	8%

References

1. Wen, Z.; Chen, Y.; Liu, Z.; Meng, J. Biochar and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Stimulate Rice Root Growth Strategy and Soil Nutrient Availability. Eur. J. Soil. Biol.; 2022; 113, 103448. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2022.103448]

2. Adomako, M.O.; Roiloa, S.; Yu, F.-H. Potential Roles of Soil Microorganisms in Regulating the Effect of Soil Nutrient Heterogeneity on Plant Performance. Microorganisms; 2022; 10, 2399. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10122399] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36557652]

3. Chen, X.; Cui, F.; Wong, C.U.I.; Zhang, H.; Wang, F. An Investigation into the Response of the Soil Ecological Environment to Tourist Disturbance in Baligou. PeerJ; 2023; 11, e15780. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15780]

4. Misbah, K.; Laamrani, A.; Khechba, K.; Dhiba, D.; Chehbouni, A. Multi-Sensors Remote Sensing Applications for Assessing, Monitoring, and Mapping NPK Content in Soil and Crops in African Agricultural Land. Remote Sens.; 2021; 14, 81. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14010081]

5. Chen, X.; Zhang, H.; Wong, C.U.I.; Li, F. Ecological Sensitivity Assessment of Central Plains Cities Using RS/GIS Technology: A Case Study of the Zheng-Bian-Luo Urban Agglomeration. Pol. J. Environ. Stud.; 2025; 34, pp. 4633-4645. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/190357]

6. Chen, X.; Chen, F.; Cui, F.; Lei, W. Spatial Heterogeneity of Sustainable Land Use in the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area in the Context of the Carbon Cycle: GIS-Based Big Data Analysis. Sustainability; 2023; 15, 1715. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15021715]

7. Deng, L.; Mao, Z.; Li, X.; Hu, Z.; Duan, F.; Yan, Y. UAV-Based Multispectral Remote Sensing for Precision Agriculture: A Comparison between Different Cameras. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.; 2018; 146, pp. 124-136. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2018.09.008]

8. Zheng, H.; Cheng, T.; Li, D.; Yao, X.; Tian, Y.; Cao, W.; Zhu, Y. Combining Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-Based Multispectral Imagery and Ground-Based Hyperspectral Data for Plant Nitrogen Concentration Estimation in Rice. Front. Plant Sci.; 2018; 9, 936. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00936] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30034405]

9. Ge, X.; Ding, J.; Jin, X.; Wang, J.; Chen, X.; Li, X.; Liu, J.; Xie, B. Estimating Agricultural Soil Moisture Content through UAV-Based Hyperspectral Images in the Arid Region. Remote Sens.; 2021; 13, 1562. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13081562]

10. Sanogo, K.; Birhanu, B.Z.; Sanogo, S.; Ba, A. Landscape Pattern Analysis Using GIS and Remote Sensing to Diagnose Soil Erosion and Nutrient Availability in Two Agroecological Zones of Southern Mali. Agric. Food Secur.; 2023; 12, 4. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40066-023-00408-6]

11. Jain, S.; Sethia, D.; Tiwari, K.C. A Critical Systematic Review on Spectral-Based Soil Nutrient Prediction Using Machine Learning. Environ. Monit. Assess.; 2024; 196, 699. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12817-6] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38963427]

12. Escorcia-Gutierrez, J.; Gamarra, M.; Soto-Diaz, R.; Pérez, M.; Madera, N.; Mansour, R.F. Intelligent Agricultural Modelling of Soil Nutrients and pH Classification Using Ensemble Deep Learning Techniques. Agriculture; 2022; 12, 977. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12070977]

13. Wilhelm, R.C.; van Es, H.M.; Buckley, D.H. Predicting Measures of Soil Health Using the Microbiome and Supervised Machine Learning. Soil. Biol. Biochem.; 2022; 164, 108472. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108472]

14. Ahmed, M.; Aslam, M.A.; Hayat, R.; Nasim, W.; Akmal, M.; Mubeen, M.; Hussain, S.; Ahmad, S. Nutrient Dynamics and the Role of Modeling. Building Climate Resilience in Agriculture: Theory, Practice and Future Perspective; Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022; pp. 297-316.

15. Kar, S.K.; Kumar, S.; Sankar, M.; Patra, S.; Singh, R.; Shrimali, S.; Ojasvi, P. Process-Based Modelling of Soil Erosion: Scope and Limitation in the Indian Context. Curr. Sci.; 2022; 122, pp. 533-541. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.18520/cs/v122/i5/533-541]

16. Villalobos, F.J.; Delgado, A.; López-Bernal, Á.; Quemada, M. FertiliCalc: A Decision Support System for Fertilizer Management. Int. J. Plant Prod.; 2020; 14, pp. 299-308. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42106-019-00085-1]

17. Luo, L.; Li, Y.; Guo, F.; Huang, Z.; Wang, S.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Yao, Y. Research on Robust Inversion Model of Soil Moisture Content Based on GF-1 Satellite Remote Sensing. Comput. Electron. Agric.; 2023; 213, 108272. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2023.108272]

18. Singh, A.; Gaurav, K. Deep Learning and Data Fusion to Estimate Surface Soil Moisture from Multi-Sensor Satellite Images. Sci. Rep.; 2023; 13, 2251. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28939-9]

19. Castaldi, F.; Hueni, A.; Chabrillat, S.; Ward, K.; Buttafuoco, G.; Bomans, B.; Vreys, K.; Brell, M.; van Wesemael, B. Evaluating the Capability of the Sentinel 2 Data for Soil Organic Carbon Prediction in Croplands. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.; 2019; 147, pp. 267-282. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2018.11.026]

20. Yuan, Y.; Gao, S.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, W.; Xu, Z.; Liu, Z. Edge-Cloud Collaborative UAV Object Detection: Edge-Embedded Lightweight Algorithm Design and Task Offloading Using Fuzzy Neural Network. IEEE Trans. Cloud Comput.; 2024; 12, pp. 306-318. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TCC.2024.3361858]

21. Jiang, J.; Li, F.; Yang, J.; Kang, Z.; Li, J. Construction of Indoor Obstacle Element Map Based on Scene-Aware Priori Obstacle Rules. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.; 2023; 195, pp. 43-64. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2022.11.003]

22. Kurihara, J.; Nagata, T.; Tomiyama, H. Rice Yield Prediction in Different Growth Environments Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Hyperspectral Imaging. Remote Sens.; 2023; 15, 2004. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15082004]

23. Yao, X.; Yi, Q.; Wang, F.; Xu, T.; Zheng, J.; Shi, Z. Estimating Rice Flower Intensity Using Flower Spectral Information from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Hyperspectral Images. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf.; 2023; 122, 103415. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2023.103415]

24. Liu, K.; Wang, Y.; Peng, Z.; Xu, X.; Liu, J.; Song, Y.; Di, H.; Hua, D. Monitoring Soil Nutrients Using Machine Learning Based on UAV Hyperspectral Remote Sensing. Int. J. Remote Sens.; 2024; 45, pp. 4897-4921. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2024.2371618]

25. Piikki, K.; Wetterlind, J.; Söderström, M.; Stenberg, B. Three-Dimensional Digital Soil Mapping of Agricultural Fields by Integration of Multiple Proximal Sensor Data Obtained from Different Sensing Methods. Precis. Agric.; 2015; 16, pp. 29-45. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11119-014-9381-6]

26. Söderström, M.; Sohlenius, G.; Rodhe, L.; Piikki, K. Adaptation of Regional Digital Soil Mapping for Precision Agriculture. Precis. Agric.; 2016; 17, pp. 588-607. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11119-016-9439-8]

27. Mouazen, A.M.; Shi, Z. Estimation and Mapping of Soil Properties Based on Multi-Source Data Fusion. Remote Sens.; 2021; 13, 978. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13050978]

28. Islam, N.; Rashid, M.M.; Pasandideh, F.; Ray, B.; Moore, S.; Kadel, R. A Review of Applications and Communication Technologies for Internet of Things (Iot) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Uav) Based Sustainable Smart Farming. Sustainability; 2021; 13, 1821. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13041821]

29. Almalki, F.A.; Soufiene, B.O.; Alsamhi, S.H.; Sakli, H. A Low-Cost Platform for Environmental Smart Farming Monitoring System Based on IoT and UAVs. Sustainability; 2021; 13, 5908. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13115908]

30. Fei, S.; Hassan, M.A.; Xiao, Y.; Su, X.; Chen, Z.; Cheng, Q.; Duan, F.; Chen, R.; Ma, Y. UAV-Based Multi-Sensor Data Fusion and Machine Learning Algorithm for Yield Prediction in Wheat. Precis. Agric.; 2023; 24, pp. 187-212. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11119-022-09938-8]

31. Nguyen, C.; Sagan, V.; Bhadra, S.; Moose, S. UAV Multisensory Data Fusion and Multi-Task Deep Learning for High-Throughput Maize Phenotyping. Sensors; 2023; 23, 1827. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23041827] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36850425]

32. Ahmed, U.; Lin, J.C.-W.; Srivastava, G.; Djenouri, Y. A Nutrient Recommendation System for Soil Fertilization Based on Evolutionary Computation. Comput. Electron. Agric.; 2021; 189, 106407. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2021.106407]

33. Haddon, A.; Rapaport, A.; Roux, S.; Harmand, J. Model Based Optimization of Fertilization with Treated Wastewater Reuse. Adv. Water Resour.; 2023; 181, 104561. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2023.104561]

34. Sha, S.; Zhao, X.; Li, Y.; Li, C.; Zhu, L.; Wang, Y.; Gao, Q. Nutrient Expert System Optimizes Fertilizer Management to Improve Potato Productivity and Tuber Quality. J. Sci. Food Agric.; 2022; 102, pp. 1233-1244. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11461]

35. Tan, X.J.; Cheor, W.L.; Yeo, K.S.; Leow, W.Z. Expert Systems in Oil Palm Precision Agriculture: A Decade Systematic Review. J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Inf. Sci.; 2022; 34, pp. 1569-1594. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2022.02.006]

36. Gao, J.; Zeng, W.; Ren, Z.; Ao, C.; Lei, G.; Gaiser, T.; Srivastava, A.K. A Fertilization Decision Model for Maize, Rice, and Soybean Based on Machine Learning and Swarm Intelligent Search Algorithms. Agronomy; 2023; 13, 1400. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051400]

37. Li, S.; Liu, J.; Yang, Y.; Shen, R.; Jiang, J. Thinking as Human: Self-Reflective Reinforcement Learning Framework for Fertilization Decision-Making. Smart Agric. Technol.; 2025; 10, 100841. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atech.2025.100841]

38. Das, P.P.; Singh, K.R.; Nagpure, G.; Mansoori, A.; Singh, R.P.; Ghazi, I.A.; Kumar, A.; Singh, J. Plant-Soil-Microbes: A Tripartite Interaction for Nutrient Acquisition and Better Plant Growth for Sustainable Agricultural Practices. Environ. Res.; 2022; 214, 113821. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113821]

39. Fung, E.; Wang, J.; Zhao, X.; Farzamian, M.; Allred, B.; Clevenger, W.B.; Levison, P.; Triantafilis, J. Mapping Cation Exchange Capacity and Exchangeable Potassium Using Proximal Soil Sensing Data at the Multiple-Field Scale. Soil. Tillage Res.; 2023; 232, 105735. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2023.105735]

40. Chen, X.; Zhang, H.; Wong, C.U.I. Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Pollution Evaluation of Soil Heavy Metals in Wulongdong National Forest Park. Sci. Rep.; 2024; 14, 8880. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58259-5]

41. Huang, S.; Tang, L.; Hupy, J.P.; Wang, Y.; Shao, G. A Commentary Review on the Use of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the Era of Popular Remote Sensing. J. For. Res.; 2021; 32, pp. 1-6. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11676-020-01155-1]

42. Xue, J.; Su, B. Significant Remote Sensing Vegetation Indices: A Review of Developments and Applications. J. Sens.; 2017; 2017, 1353691. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/1353691]

43. Jiang, Z.; Huete, A.R.; Chen, J.; Chen, Y.; Li, J.; Yan, G.; Zhang, X. Analysis of NDVI and Scaled Difference Vegetation Index Retrievals of Vegetation Fraction. Remote Sens. Environ.; 2006; 101, pp. 366-378. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.01.003]

44. Wang, F.; Gao, J.; Zha, Y. Hyperspectral Sensing of Heavy Metals in Soil and Vegetation: Feasibility and Challenges. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens.; 2018; 136, pp. 73-84. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2017.12.003]

45. Wang, S.; Guan, K.; Zhang, C.; Lee, D.; Margenot, A.J.; Ge, Y.; Peng, J.; Zhou, W.; Zhou, Q.; Huang, Y. Using Soil Library Hyperspectral Reflectance and Machine Learning to Predict Soil Organic Carbon: Assessing Potential of Airborne and Spaceborne Optical Soil Sensing. Remote Sens. Environ.; 2022; 271, 112914. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2022.112914]

46. Aasen, H.; Honkavaara, E.; Lucieer, A.; Zarco-Tejada, P.J. Quantitative Remote Sensing at Ultra-High Resolution with UAV Spectroscopy: A Review of Sensor Technology, Measurement Procedures, and Data Correction Workflows. Remote Sens.; 2018; 10, 1091. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs10071091]

47. Ameer, S.; Cheema, M.J.M.; Khan, M.A.; Amjad, M.; Noor, M.; Wei, L. Delineation of Nutrient Management Zones for Precise Fertilizer Management in Wheat Crop Using Geo-Statistical Techniques. Soil. Use Manag.; 2022; 38, pp. 1430-1445. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sum.12813]

48. Rezaee, L.; Davatgar, N.; Moosavi, A.A.; Sepaskhah, A.R. Implications of Spatial Variability of Soil Physical Attributes in Delineating Site-Specific Irrigation Management Zones for Rice Crop. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.; 2023; 23, pp. 6596-6611. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42729-023-01513-y]

49. Mathenge, M.; Sonneveld, B.G.; Broerse, J.E. Application of GIS in Agriculture in Promoting Evidence-Informed Decision Making for Improving Agriculture Sustainability: A Systematic Review. Sustainability; 2022; 14, 9974. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14169974]

50. Nath, S. A Vision of Precision Agriculture: Balance between Agricultural Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship. Agron. J.; 2024; 116, pp. 1126-1143. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21405]

51. Peng, Y.; Zhong, W.; Peng, Z.; Tu, Y.; Xu, Y.; Li, Z.; Liang, J.; Huang, J.; Liu, X.; Fu, Y. Enhanced Estimation of Rice Leaf Nitrogen Content via the Integration of Hybrid Preferred Features and Deep Learning Methodologies. Agronomy; 2024; 14, 1248. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061248]

52. Lambertini, A.; Mandanici, E.; Tini, M.A.; Vittuari, L. Technical Challenges for Multi-Temporal and Multi-Sensor Image Processing Surveyed by UAV for Mapping and Monitoring in Precision Agriculture. Remote Sens.; 2022; 14, 4954. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14194954]

53. Sharma, S.; Chatterjee, A. Comparing Soil Test Kits with Standard Lab-Based Soil Tests for Agricultural Soils. Crops Soils; 2019; 52, pp. 18-20. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.2134/cs2019.52.0202]

54. Uribeetxebarria, A.; Castellón, A.; Aizpurua, A. A First Approach to Determine If It Is Possible to Delineate In-Season n Fertilization Maps for Wheat Using NDVI Derived from Sentinel-2. Remote Sens.; 2022; 14, 2872. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14122872]

55. de Jesús Marcial-Pablo, M.; Gonzalez-Sanchez, A.; Jimenez-Jimenez, S.I.; Ontiveros-Capurata, R.E.; Ojeda-Bustamante, W. Estimation of Vegetation Fraction Using RGB and Multispectral Images from UAV. Int. J. Remote Sens.; 2019; 40, pp. 420-438. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2018.1528017]

56. Khanal, S.; Kc, K.; Fulton, J.P.; Shearer, S.; Ozkan, E. Remote Sensing in Agriculture—Accomplishments, Limitations, and Opportunities. Remote Sens.; 2020; 12, 3783. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12223783]

57. Pande, C.B.; Moharir, K.N. Application of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Role in Precision Farming and Sustainable Agriculture under Climate Change: A Review. Climate Change Impacts on Natural Resources, Ecosystems and Agricultural Systems; Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2023; pp. 503-520.

58. Yu, H.; Kong, B.; Hou, Y.; Xu, X.; Chen, T.; Liu, X. A Critical Review on Applications of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing in Crop Monitoring. Exp. Agric.; 2022; 58, e26. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0014479722000278]

59. Zhang, X.; Xiang, D.-Q.; Yang, C.; Wu, W.; Liu, H.-B. The Spatial Variability of Temporal Changes in Soil pH Affected by Topography and Fertilization. Catena; 2022; 218, 106586. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106586]

60. Júnior, M.R.B.; Santos, R.G.D.; de Azevedo Sales, L.; de Oliveira, L.P. Advancements in Agricultural Ground Robots for Specialty Crops: An Overview of Innovations, Challenges, and Prospects. Plants; 2024; 13, 3372. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants13233372]

61. Jafarbiglu, H.; Pourreza, A. A Comprehensive Review of Remote Sensing Platforms, Sensors, and Applications in Nut Crops. Comput. Electron. Agric.; 2022; 197, 106844. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2022.106844]

62. Bahlo, C.; Dahlhaus, P.; Thompson, H.; Trotter, M. The Role of Interoperable Data Standards in Precision Livestock Farming in Extensive Livestock Systems: A Review. Comput. Electron. Agric.; 2019; 156, pp. 459-466. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.12.007]

63. Salembier, C.; Segrestin, B.; Weil, B.; Jeuffroy, M.-H.; Cadoux, S.; Cros, C.; Favrelière, E.; Fontaine, L.; Gimaret, M.; Noilhan, C. . A Theoretical Framework for Tracking Farmers’ Innovations to Support Farming System Design. Agron. Sustain. Dev.; 2021; 41, 61. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13593-021-00713-z]

64. Goldstein, A.; Fink, L.; Ravid, G. A Cloud-Based Framework for Agricultural Data Integration: A Top-down-Bottom-up Approach. IEEE Access; 2022; 10, pp. 88527-88537. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3198099]

65. Munir, K.; Ghafoor, M.; Khafagy, M.; Ihshaish, H. AgroSupportAnalytics: A Cloud-Based Complaints Management and Decision Support System for Sustainable Farming in Egypt. Egypt. Inform. J.; 2022; 23, pp. 73-82. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eij.2021.06.002]

66. Ju, C.; Son, H.I. Multiple UAV Systems for Agricultural Applications: Control, Implementation, and Evaluation. Electronics; 2018; 7, 162. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics7090162]

67. Merz, M.; Pedro, D.; Skliros, V.; Bergenhem, C.; Himanka, M.; Houge, T.; Matos-Carvalho, J.P.; Lundkvist, H.; Cürüklü, B.; Hamrén, R. . Autonomous UAS-Based Agriculture Applications: General Overview and Relevant European Case Studies. Drones; 2022; 6, 128. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/drones6050128]

68. He, Q.; Zhao, H.; Feng, Y.; Wang, Z.; Ning, Z.; Luo, T. Edge Computing-Oriented Smart Agricultural Supply Chain Mechanism with Auction and Fuzzy Neural Networks. J. Cloud Comput.; 2024; 13, 66. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13677-024-00626-8]

69. Chen, B.; Su, Q.; Li, Y.; Chen, R.; Yang, W.; Huang, C. Field Rice Growth Monitoring and Fertilization Management Based on UAV Spectral and Deep Image Feature Fusion. Agronomy; 2025; 15, 886. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040886]

70. Angelopoulou, T.; Balafoutis, A.; Zalidis, G.; Bochtis, D. From Laboratory to Proximal Sensing Spectroscopy for Soil Organic Carbon Estimation—A Review. Sustainability; 2020; 12, 443. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12020443]

71. Angelopoulou, T.; Tziolas, N.; Balafoutis, A.; Zalidis, G.; Bochtis, D. Remote Sensing Techniques for Soil Organic Carbon Estimation: A Review. Remote Sens.; 2019; 11, 676. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11060676]

72. Tziachris, P.; Aschonitis, V.; Chatzistathis, T.; Papadopoulou, M. Assessment of Spatial Hybrid Methods for Predicting Soil Organic Matter Using DEM Derivatives and Soil Parameters. Catena; 2019; 174, pp. 206-216. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.11.010]

73. Tripathi, A.; Tiwari, R.K.; Tiwari, S.P. A Deep Learning Multi-Layer Perceptron and Remote Sensing Approach for Soil Health Based Crop Yield Estimation. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf.; 2022; 113, 102959. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2022.102959]

74. Leong, W.L.; Martinel, N.; Huang, S.; Micheloni, C.; Foresti, G.L.; Teo, R.S.H. An Intelligent Auto-Organizing Aerial Robotic Sensor Network System for Urban Surveillance. J. Intell. Robot. Syst.; 2021; 102, 33. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10846-021-01398-y]

75. Kalyani, Y.; Collier, R. A Systematic Survey on the Role of Cloud, Fog, and Edge Computing Combination in Smart Agriculture. Sensors; 2021; 21, 5922. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21175922] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34502813]

© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.

Dynamic Monitoring and Precision Fertilization Decision System for Agricultural Soil Nutrients Using UAV Remote Sensing and GIS

Content area

Abstract

Full text

1. Introduction

2. Related Work

2.1. Remote Sensing for Soil Nutrient Monitoring

2.2. Multi-Source Data Fusion in Agriculture

2.3. Intelligent Fertilization Decision Systems

3. Background and Preliminary Knowledge

3.1. Soil Nutrient Dynamics

3.2. Principles of Remote Sensing

3.3. Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

4. Methodology for Dynamic Monitoring and Precision Fertilization

4.1. Multi-Source Data Fusion and Processing

4.2. Dynamic Soil Nutrient Modeling Approach

4.3. Intelligent Fertilization Decision-Making Process

4.4. GIS Visualization and Interactive Decision Support

5. Experimental Setup and Data Collection

5.1. Study Area and Field Selection

5.2. UAV System Configuration and Flight Planning

5.3. Ground Truth Data Collection

5.4. Environmental Monitoring Infrastructure

5.5. Data Processing Pipeline

5.6. Comparative Methods and Evaluation Metrics

6. Experimental Results and Analysis

6.1. Soil Nutrient Estimation Accuracy

6.2. Dynamic Nutrient Monitoring Performance

6.3. Fertilization Efficiency and Crop Response

6.4. System Robustness Across Environments

6.5. Economic and Environmental Impact Analysis

7. Discussion and Future Work

7.1. Limitations and Challenges of the Proposed System

7.2. Potential Application Scenarios and Scalability

7.3. Comparative Analysis with State-of-the-Art Approaches

7.4. Future Directions and Opportunities for Improvement

7.5. Fallback Strategies for UAV Operational Limitations

8. Conclusions