Headnote
Abstract
This study explores the impact of Video Content Generation (VCG) activities on the foreign language development of pre-service teachers. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, with a quantitative stage utilizing a single-group pre-test/post-test design and a qualitative stage employing a case study approach. The study involves 30 students tasked with VCG activities. Three experts assessed their speaking development (fluency, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, organization) using a rubric over eight weeks. The weekly scores obtained were analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA test. Significant improvements were observed in fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and organization scores, particularly in later weeks, with medium to large effect sizes. However, grammar scores did not show significant differences. Qualitative data from focus group interviews with 11 female and 6 male students highlight the perceived benefits of VCG, particularly in terms of enhanced fluency and pronunciation practice. According to the interview findings, students stated that producing video content provided an opportunity to practice speaking outside the classroom, enabling them to speak more fluently and with more accurate pronunciation in front of a camera and an audience. They expressed positive feelings about having their own video channel. However, they also reported experiencing difficulties throughout various stages of the video production process, including selecting a topic, ensuring suitable conditions for recording, facing challenges during filming, and dealing with editing and sharing the videos. The study concluded that producing video content significantly improved students' speaking skills, and several suggestions were offered for English teachers to incorporate video content production into their classroom practices.
Keywords: social media, speaking development, student-generated content, teacher education, video content generation
Öz
Bu çalışma, video içerik üretimi (VCG - Video Content Generation) etkinliklerinin öğretmen adaylarının yabancı dil gelişimi üzerindeki etkisini incelemektedir. Araştırma, nicel aşamada tek gruplu ön test/son test deseni ve nitel aşamada durum çalışması içeren karma yöntemli bir yaklaşımla yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada 30 öğrenciye video içerik üretimi etkinliği verilmiş ve öğrencilerin konuşma becerileri (akıcılık, dilbilgisi, telaffuz, kelime bilgisi ve organizasyon) bir rubrik ile üç uzman tarafından sekiz hafta boyunca ölçülmüştür. Elde edilen haftalık puanlar tekrarlı ölçümler ANOVA testi ile analiz edilmiştir. Nicel bulgular, öğrencilerin akıcılık ve kelime bilgisi puanlarının orta büyüklükte anlamlı; telaffuz ve organizasyon puanlarının ise yüksek büyüklükte anlamlı olarak son haftalar lehine değiştiğini göstermiştir. Dilbilgisi puanlarında ise anlamlı bir fark tespit edilmemiştir. Çalışmanın nitel boyutunda ise 11 kadın ve 6 erkek olmak üzere toplam 17 öğrenci ile odak grup görüşmeleri yapılmıştır. Görüşme bulgularına göre öğrenciler video içerik üretiminin sınıf dışında konuşma pratiği yapma fırsatı sunarak kamera ve topluluk önünde daha akıcı ve doğru telaffuz ile konuşmayı sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. Öğrenciler video kanalına sahip olmaya ilişkin olumlu duygular ifade etmişlerdir. Video içerik oluşturma süreçlerinin çeşitli aşamalarını belirterek konu seçimi, video için uygun koşulları sağlayamama, çekim esnasında yaşanan problemler, video düzenleme ve paylaşımı konularında sorunlar yaşadıklarını söylemişlerdir. Çalışma sonucunda video içerik üretiminin konuşma becerilerini önemli ölçüde geliştirdiği görülmüş ve İngilizce öğretmenlerinin sınıflarında video içerik üretimi yöntemini kullanmalarına yönelik çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Anahtar kelimeler: sosyal medya, konuşma gelişimi, öğrenci üretimi içerik, öğretmen eğitimi, video içerik üretimi
INTRODUCTION
The 21st century is characterized by a digital lifestyle, where individuals freely express their identities, personalities, and lives through social media (Gündüz, 2017). As young learners now prefer digital tools for communication, these attitudes are also reflected in educational settings (Prensky, 2001). It is therefore necessary to match current technological trends with pedagogical methods that motivate this generation to learn. The prominent availability of video platforms demonstrates this transformative shiftin learning, from static images and text to dynamic media. The use of video channels provides individuals with active experiences that have significant pedagogical potential (Schuck & Kearney, 2006). When students are involved in creating their own video content, they gain valuable skill-building experiences. The process of content production not only facilitates understanding of the subject but also promotes the development of positive attitudes towards learning and enhances digital literacy skills (Yu & Zadorozhnyy, 2021). User-generated video-based activities provide opportunities that replace the passive learning experiences in foreign language classrooms. Broadcasting in front of the camera provides opportunities for the development of various learning skills, as outlined by Lee et al. (2008):
VCG activities offer students the opportunity to develop new skills in reading, writing, listening, speaking, and personal development. By creating content, students can take control of their learning and develop social skills through reflection and sharing (Dale & Povey, 2009). This blended learning environment allows students to engage with the foreign language outside of class time, providing more opportunities for communication and feedback. In addition, students can develop positive attitudes and motivation by actively participating in the creation of content.
The Effects of Video Content Generation on Speaking Skills
Speaking skills play an important role in language proficiency. They serve various functions such as expressing emotions, influencing others, and conveying messages (Boldan, 2019). When developing speaking skills, factors such as age, proficiency level, interests, cultural context, classroom environment, time, and resources impact learning (Bozkurt, 2019). By considering these conditions, teachers can determine the most effective teaching methods (Wilz, 2000). Analyzing teaching conditions help teachers' understanding of the reasons for success or failure. Furthermore, the practical use of the target language plays an important role in improving speaking skills (Özdemir, 2018). Therefore, it is essential to organize frequent oral practice activities (Ho & Hong, 2019). These activities facilitate the improvement of speaking skills and provide opportunities for interpersonal interaction. Research suggests that small group interactions promote meaningful learning (Murphy, 2010). Through rehearsal and feedback on real-life topics, students can achieve the necessary automaticity in speaking (Oleiwi & Bunari, 2022).
Speaking has been characterized as the most difficult skill to teach due to the complexity of its different sub-knowledges and skills (Tarone, 2005). In the cognitive dimension, learners may face difficulties in automaticity if they struggle to apply their knowledge effectively in real-life situations (Fitriani et al., 2015). Affective factors such as shyness, fear of making mistakes, introversion, and anxiety related to public speaking can also hinder the development of speaking skills (Bárkányi, 2021; Fikriah, 2016). Social barriers-including the lack of a comfortable learning environment, limited student-teacher communication, traditional teaching methods, and lack of classroom interaction-can have a negative impact (Fikriah, 2016; Kara et al., 2017). In addition, physical constraints such as overcrowded classrooms, limited time, insufficient resources, and ineffective use of technology can also hinder skill development (Riyanto, 2020). Furthermore, achieving fluency in a foreign language requires the organized use of appropriate vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar rules, coupled with confidence (Hadfield & Hadfield, 2008). Deficits in any of these sub-skills can cause anxiety and hinder effective communication.
In studies conducted in Türkiye, the main challenges in foreign language teaching include traditional theoretical approaches, limited class time, overcrowded classrooms, and insufficient use of technology (European Commission, 2012; Can & Can, 2014; Demirpolat, 2015; Oktay, 2015). To address these issues, suggestions have been made such as incorporating out-of-school language activities, adopting student-centered communicative methods, and utilizing diverse technological resources (Can & Can, 2014; Demirpolat, 2015; Öztürk & Aydın, 2019). The literature on VCG is closely aligned with these challenges and proposed solutions. Video production promotes student-generated content and fosters learner-centeredness (Dale & Povey, 2009; Epps et al., 2021; Namin et al., 2021). It has also been noted that students who spend time creating videos develop thinking skills (Dale & Povey, 2009; Epps et al., 2021), creativity (Namin et al., 2021; Ribosa & Duran, 2022), digital literacy (Ribosa & Duran, 2022), and learning autonomy (Dale & Povey, 2009). In addition, this approach encourages students to use the foreign language outside of regular class time (Epps et al., 2021).
Video content generation has gained popularity as a means of communication, in part due to the widespread use of video-based social networks. Today, students can create videos using accessible tools, taking on multiple roles such as producer, director, editor, writer, and actor, which helps them develop skills such as organization, negotiation, and creativity (Kearney & Schuck, 2006). Video creation involves higher-order cognitive thinking skills such as understanding, planning, filming, directing, creating, combining, and collaborating (Arruabarrena et al., 2019). Videos not only capture students' interest in the subject matter, but also encourage active participation (Koumi, 2006). Student-generated video content fosters a sense of ownership and motivation, even for disengaged students or those who don't meet traditional success criteria (Vickery, 2014). When students produce videos, they feel empowered, autonomous, and free to experiment (Kearney & Schuck, 2006). The audience of peers, rather than teachers, adds to the appeal of video for students (Phillips, 2017). Students find the task of creating video content exciting and provide opportunities for dialogue, self-expression, and peer feedback (Schuck & Kearney, 2006; Wegerif, 2015). Participation in video production increases students' understanding, digital literacy, motivation, and engagement (Schuck & Kearney, 2004). Collaborative aspects such as group work and peer assessment further contribute to the benefits of video projects (Ryan, 2013). Overall, video content production serves as a powerful cognitive tool that allows students to connect knowledge to the real world and make meaningful learning connections (Kearney & Schuck, 2006).
The impact of VCG activities on students' foreign language speaking sub-skills is quite comprehensive. These activities contribute to the development of speaking skills such as fluency, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and organization (Kang, 2022). VCG activities enhance language learners' speaking abilities by providing them with authentic speaking opportunities and self-assessment capabilities (Golonka et. al, 2014). As students continue to engage in speaking performance in videos, they can develop the ability to sequence words and sentences at a natural pace and express themselves fluently in real-life situations (Kang, 2022; Saienko & Shevchenko, 2020). Moreover, students have the opportunity to recognize various grammatical structures and apply appropriate word order, sentence structures, and tenses in suitable contexts (Oleiwi & Bunari, 2022). On the other hand, when creating videos, students have the responsibility of making active decisions regarding the choice and use of words in order to convey their messages effectively. VCG thus provides a playground for students to use the right contexts by exploring and trying various words, sentences, and phrases during presentations (Saienko & Shevchenko, 2020). Additionally, the incorporation of visual and audio elements in videos can enhance the retention of vocabulary and phrases in real-world contexts (Kurt & Bensen, 2017). In terms of pronunciation, VCG activities help students listen and evaluate their own speaking performance (Oleiwi & Bunari, 2022). This enables them to identify intonation and articulation errors and provides the opportunity to correct them. Furthermore, VCG activities foster students' organizational skills, enabling them to organize and present video content in a logical order. During the organization process, drafts are created based on issues such as introducing the topic, developing the main points, and finalizing the presentation. The process of reviewing the drafts allows for the identification of areas for improvement and refinement of the flow (Huang, 2021). These activities strengthen students' organizational skills and provide the opportunity for a more coherent flow of speech. In this manner, students have the opportunity to self-reflection, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation through VCG activities. Furthermore, they can enhance their speaking performance with the feedback they receive from peers and teachers (Debbag & Fidan, 2021). Consequently, they can strengthen their ability to convey the messages more clearly.
Several studies have demonstrated the positive impact of VCG on foreign language speaking development (Akdeniz, 2017; Brega, 2025; Huang, 2021; Nguyen, 2024; Wang, 2025; Zghoul & Bataineh, 2024). Positive outcomes include improved speaking, critical thinking, organizational, and digital literacy skills, as well as increased class participation, enjoyment, and independent and collaborative learning (Brega, 2025; Huang, 2021; Wang, 2025; Yang et al., 2020). In VCG projects, group work has been shown to be motivating and enjoyable, improve communication and expression skills, increase self-confidence, create a comfortable environment for students who struggle with real-time communication, and facilitate learning through repetition and re-recording (Lambert et al., 2021; Wang, 2025). Although preparing videos requires effort and time, it adds meaning to language use (Lambert et al., 2021). Video projects that focus on real-life issues facilitate the integration of the foreign language into everyday life and contribute to the development of positive attitudes among students (Akdeniz, 2017).
Video-sharing sites also provide social interaction, such as creating channels and engaging with comments and reactions (Chau, 2010). Learners can develop positive attitudes and motivation for their courses by creating their own content or scenarios (Epps et al., 2021; Namin et al., 2021). Creating content related to course topics can also improve students' presentation skills and attention spans (Berk, 2009). Language instruction can yield significant benefits by incorporating activities outside the classroom that involve direct engagement, such as speaking and writing, rather than solely reading and listening (Chusanachoti, 2009; Murray, 2008). Students who are actively involved in creating, organizing, collecting, and evaluating content have reported improvements in their reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension skills (Fatayer, 2016).
Purpose of the Study
With its pedagocial potential VCG offers opportunities to support the improvement of foreign language speaking skills among pre-service teachers through active language use and content creation. This method offers a number of opportunities for student teachers to engage in speaking practice, creating a natural environment for language acquisition. Additionally, it models real-world scenarios and utilizes audio/visual stimuli to support the language learning process. By fostering creativity and student-centered learning, VCG prepares pre-service teachers to become effective language educators. Moreover, this approach incorporates elements that are relevant to the development of essential teaching skills, including speaking confidence, self-expression, and classroom communication. It also emphasizes the integration of interactive technological methods into instructional design, thereby shaping the future teaching experiences of pre-service teachers. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine how the process of creating video content affects preservice teachers' speaking development. The research questions addressed in this study are as follows:
1. Do VCG activities affect pre-service EFL teachers' speaking skills in the following areas:
a) Fluency
b) Grammar
c) Pronunciation
d) Vocabulary
e) Organization skills
2. What are students' views on the VCG process and its effects on their English speaking skills?
METHOD
Research Design
This study used a mixed-method sequential explanatory design. In the quantitative dimension of the study, a single-group pretest-posttest design was used to collect data. In the qualitative dimension, a case study design was employed. This design allowed the effect of the intervention on pre-service teachers' speaking skills to be examined from both statistical and contextual perspectives. Speaking development was assessed in detail across five sub-dimensions: fluency, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and organization. These dimensions were monitored over an eight-week period using quantitative data. Due to the limited number of participants available during the study, it was not feasible to include a control group in the design. On the other hand, it provides an opportunity to examine changes in sub-dimensions of speaking skills in detail and in a comparative manner. (Privitera & Delzell, 2019). In the qualitative part of the study, participants' experiences and perceptions regarding the VCG process were explored through focus group interviews to support and explain the quantitative findings.
Sample
The study involved 30 first-year students from the department of foreign language education/department of English language teaching at Firat University. The participant group consisted of 24 female students and 6 male students who were selected using convenience sampling. In the qualitative dimension of the study, interviews were conducted with a subset of 17 students, 6 male (P1-P2-P8-P9-P12-P13) and 11 female (P3-P4-P5-P6-P7-P10-P11- P14-P15-P16-P17), who were also selected through convenience sampling.
Implementation
During the implementation phase, the students were given the task of creating eight videos based on the weekly topics including earth matters, issues in education, technology, cultural issues, addictions, arts, sports, famous people. They received basic training to support their video editing skills. Students worked in groups of two or three, and each student was required to produce a voiceover of approximately two minutes. The videos were uploaded to a classroom-specific website. Students were free to choose the format of their videos. The videos were evaluated weekly by a foreign language expert using a rubric developed by the researchers. The feedback and scores were provided to the students to guide their progress. In addition, the researchers themselves provided feedback on the uploaded videos through comments on the social network. To ensure reliability, the videos were also scored by two additional experts using the same rubric. Following the submission and scoring process, focus group interviews were conducted with groups of two or three students. The implementation process is summarized in Figure 1.
Data Collection Tools
In the quantitative dimension, students' video speaking performances were evaluated using the Speaking Skills Assessment Rubric (Appendix 1). The rubric was created by the researchers by examining various rubrics developed to evaluate students' speaking skills. It includes fluency, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and organizational skills, which are frequently included in the examined rubrics. Each skill is evaluated on a scale of 1 to 10. To ensure reliability, expert opinions were sought and pilot studies were conducted. Three field experts, including one Ph.D. candidate and two Ph.D. holders, evaluated the students' video speaking performances using the rubric. According to the inter-rater correlation coefficient ranges specified by Koo and Li (2016), the fluency (.83), grammar (.79), pronunciation (.79), vocabulary (.76), and total scores (.89) were found to be in good agreement, while the organization (.73) score was found to be in moderate agreement. In the qualitative dimension, students' views on their experiences in the VCG process were collected through a semi-structured interview form. The interview form includes questions regarding VCG activities and speaking skills, divided into sections that cover topics such as feelings about having a video channel, experiences during the VCG process, difficulties encountered during video production, and the effects of VCG on speaking skills.
Data Analysis
The mean scores of students' fluency, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, organization, and total speaking scores obtained from three experts in eight videos were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA test. The data obtained from the focus group interviews with the students were transcribed from audio recordings and analyzed. An inductive coding method was used in which themes were derived from the data. To ensure validity and reliability, the coding process was conducted by two independent raters. In addition, a third rater independently checked the coding to increase reliability. Finally, similar statements were grouped into first-level codes, which were then organized into higher-level themes.
Research Ethics
Prior to the research, ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Atatürk University on 10.04.2019 issue number 07. Before data collection, all participants were informed about the research procedures and signed a written consent form indicating their voluntary participation. In addition, obtained consent was verbally recorded from each participant before the qualitative phase.
FINDINGS
Quantitative findings
This section presents the findings obtained from the rubric results provided by the experts.
Fluency
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for the participants' weekly fluency scores are shown in Table 1.
According to Table 1, there was a medium (ηp2=.126) and significant difference between the students' eight-week fluency scores (F(3.95, 114.53)= 4.18, p<.05). The post-hoc test revealed that the difference existed only between the first week and the last three weeks (6-7-8). Figure 3 shows the change in participants' fluency scores over the weeks.
Grammar
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for the participants' weekly grammar scores are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 indicates that there was no significant difference between the weekly measures of students' grammar performance over the eight weeks. (F(4.91, 142.50)=0.56, p>.05). Figure 4 shows the change in participants' grammar scores.
Pronunciation
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for the participants' weekly pronunciation scores are shown in Table 3.
According to Table 3, there was a significant (F(7, 203)=9.955, p<.05) and large effect (ηp2=.256) difference between the students' pronunciation performances for eight weeks. According to the post-hoc test, it was found that Weeks 1 and 3 were lower than Week 7, Weeks 2, 4, 5, and 6 were lower than Week 8 performance. The change graph of the participants' pronunciation scores is shown in Figure 5.
Vocabulary
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for the participants' weekly vocabulary scores are shown in Table 4.
According to Table 4, there was a significant (F(7, 203)= 3.50, p<.05) and moderate (ηp2=.108) difference between the students' eight-week vocabulary knowledge scores. According to the post-hoc test, it was found that the first and second-week performances were lower than the eighth-week performance. The change graph of the participants' vocabulary knowledge scores by week is shown in Figure 6.
Organization
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for participants' weekly organization scores are shown in Table 5.
According to Table 5, a significant (F(4.01, 116.41)=21.06, p<.05) and large effect (ηp2=.421) difference was found between the students' eight-week organization scores. According to the post-hoc test results, it was found that the organization score of Week 1 was lower than the other weeks' scores (except Week 3). Week 2 score was lower than Weeks 6, 7, and 8; Weeks 3 and 5 scores were lower than Week 8; and Week 4 score was lower than Weeks 6 and 8. The graph of change in participants' organization scores by week is shown in Figure 7.
Total Score
The results of the repeated measures ANOVA test for participants' weekly total scores are shown in Table 6.
According to Table 6, there was a significant (F(3.43, 99.45)=20, 872, p<.05) and large effect (ηp2=.419) difference between the students' eight-week video performances. According to the results of the post-hoc test the scores improved after 2 weeks, then again after Week 7, and peaked at Week 8.
Qualitative Findings
This section presents the findings and quotations obtained from the interviews with students.
Students' feelings about having a video channel
Participants were asked about their feelings about having a video channel. The answers given are shown in Table 7.
The majority of students (77%) expressed positive emotions, including happiness, excitement, selfconfidence, hope of earning, development of responsibility, opportunity for social interaction, and motivation to create content. Here are a few examples of positive responses:
On the other hand, five students (19%) initially reported shyness but later expressed positive feelings. Only one student (4%) did not respond, stating that he did not experience any specific emotions due to the limited nature of the activity. Here are a few sample comments from the students:
Students' experiences in the VCG process
To understand the students' experiences and the steps they took in the VCG process, they were asked about their experiences. The responses provided by the students are presented in Table 8.
During the process, the students shared their experiences regarding the different steps involved in video creation. First, they mentioned that they started by choosing a topic. They researched the chosen topic, focusing on pronunciation, and took short notes to prepare themselves. In the planning stage, they mentally sketched the main lines and created a draft. In the development stage, they considered factors such as timing and location and made necessary adjustments to ensure the quality of the video. During the implementation phase, they acted out their plan, sometimes improvising and enjoying the process, despite the occasional recording glitch. Finally, in the product creation phase, they edited the videos and uploaded them to the platform to share with others. Here are some excerpts from the students' responses:
Challenges of VCG
The participants were asked at which stages of the implementation they had the most difficulty. The students' responses are listed in Table 9.
Based on the students' responses, one of the main difficulties mentioned was reaching a unanimous decision on the selection of an appropriate topic. In addition, they faced obstacles related to finding an appropriate environment, such as limitations imposed by the dormitory setting, adverse weather conditions, unwanted background noise in the videos, and the need for an assistant. Here are some statements made by students:
During the video recording process, the students also faced challenges that affected their speaking fluency, such as forgetting the planned speech, trying to avoid mistakes, pausing while speaking, and pronunciation problems due to excitement. It was also mentioned that the recording had to be restarted because of the presence of different people and voices in the video as a result of mistakes made. Here are some statements:
Student opinions on the effect of video generation process on speaking skills
Students were asked if creating video content affected their speaking skills. The students' responses are shown in Table 10.
According to the responses obtained, 16 out of 17 participants (94%) indicated that they had various benefits. The main benefits mentioned by the students were practicing speaking outside the classroom, speaking more fluently, speaking on camera and in public, gaining knowledge about new topics, and improving pronunciation.
One participant (6%), unlike the others, stated that she did not feel any improvement. The reason for this was that the short duration of the videos was not enough to ensure adequate development. The student's response to this question is as follows:
Development of speaking skills according to student opinions
The pre-service teachers were asked to identify which skills they believed developed the most during the VCG process. The responses provided by the pre-service teachers are presented in Table 11.
Based on the findings, the majority of students (94%) felt that their fluency skills improved the most compared to the other sub-skills. Additionally, a significant number of students mentioned improvements in their organization (65%), pronunciation (41%), and vocabulary (24%) skills. It is worth noting that grammar was not mentioned as a skill that showed significant development. Here are some selected responses from the students:
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
In this study, researchers investigated the impact of VCG activities on the foreign language speaking skills of pre-service teachers using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Analysis of the students' performance scores revealed significant improvements in fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and organizational skills in the later weeks of the study. These results suggest that as the students gained more experience and became more comfortable speaking on camera, their performance improved significantly. The results of this study are discussed further in the following sections.
Fluency
Based on the results obtained, it can be said that VCG is an effective method to increase speaking fluency and general language proficiency. Other studies in the literature also show that self-recorded video-talk tasks positively affect students' self-regulation, English proficiency, motivation, language skills, learning strategies and progress awareness (Kang, 2022). Biancarosa and Shanley (2016) used the analogy of cycling to illustrate this process: just as novice cyclists initially struggle but gain automaticity through repeated practice, language learners experience initial challenges that gradually recede with continued practice. Accordingly, the study shows that students experienced initial anxiety, as noted by Phillips (2017), which diminished over time as they became more accustomed to the novel teaching method. As found by Astuti and Pusparani (2020) and Riyanto (2020), the repeated practice opportunity facilitated by video recordings contributed significantly to the observed improvement in fluency performance.
Grammar
The study demonstrated significant improvements in various skills, except for grammar. The limited progress in grammar can be attributed to the adopted active learning approach, which prioritizes communication over rote grammar memorization. Conventional language education, often teacher-centric, underscores memorization, translation, and grammatical directives (Brown & Lee, 2015), while student-centered active learning methods emphasize collaboration and communication (Nunan, 2003). These two paradigms are often contrasted as knowledge-based versus skill-based approaches (Bygate, 1987; Bachman & Palmer, 1996). Although knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is fundamental to speaking a language, it alone does not guarantee fluency in real communication. This principle applies not only to language but to all fields of skill acquisition. Bygate (1987) illustrates this point with an example: although a person may know how to drive, effectively navigating a vehicle under changing road conditions requires the ability to apply that knowledge with control and precision. Considering the spontaneous, unplanned, and time-constrained nature of speaking compared to other language skills, it is reasonable to expect some grammatical limitations when non-expert learners attempt to apply rules fluently. Moreover, Gan (2012) notes that learners often need to pre-plan their sentences to produce grammatically correct structures. In such cases, students who overthink what to say may feel inadequate in terms of fluency. Similarly, Krashen (1982) asserts that second language learners rely on intuitive performance during spontaneous speech, which may result in grammatical errors. According to Gan (2012), such errors arise from the cognitive load imposed by the topic of conversation and learners' partial command of grammar rules, which strains their mental processing. Therefore, learners may prioritize fluency over grammatical accuracy during performance (Tavakoli & Foster, 2008). In other words, students tend to focus more on conveying meaning than on constructing structurally accurate sentences (Nunan, 1989, p. 10). In the present study, both the absence of a statistically significant difference in grammatical performance and the lack of qualitative evidence indicating improvement in grammatical usage align with the findings reported in the literature.
Pronunciation
Participating in the video project exposed students to new vocabulary and allowed them to research and refine their pronunciation skills. This real-world application fosters a genuine need for precise pronunciation (Gilakjani, 2011). To enhance foreign language speaking, integrating communication tasks relevant to real-life scenarios is considered critical (Grant, 2010). Students noted refining pronunciation based on peer and teacher feedback via social network interactions. Video recordings allowed for self-review and improvement recognition, aided by input from peers and teachers. Previous studies have also found that students improved their pronunciation through the process of rehearsing and video recording in English (Ho & Hong, 2019; Oleiwi & Bunari, 2022). These iterative practices are pivotal for achieving pronunciation automaticity (Darcy, 2018). As evident from feedback, this process inculcated students' sense of responsibility for pronunciation accuracy before recording new videos.
Vocabulary
According to student feedback, the vocabulary gains observed in the final videos can be attributed to several factors. One prominent factor is the availability of a variety of current and relevant topics for speaking practice. Students had the autonomy to choose topics of interest and familiarity, which allowed them to control their learning experience. Students reported that they engaged in vocabulary research for the weekly topics they chose. Yeh (2018) found that preparing drafts with newly learned words before video presentations can facilitate improved vocabulary acquisition. Other research supports the notion that a broader vocabulary contributes to improved reading, speaking, listening, and other language skills (Bromley, 2004). Therefore, it is advisable to incorporate interactive word use among students and to explore different contextual facets of vocabulary (Bromley, 2004). Furthermore, video projects provide a platform for students to explore how language is used in different scenarios (Souzandehfar et al., 2014). This comprehensive exposure promotes flexible word application that goes beyond mere memorization. In conclusion, vocabulary expansion and its application in videos can effectively improve speaking skills.
Organization
The study revealed a notable improvement in speaking organization. In this context, organization includes skillful structuring of content, transitions, highlighting key points, and capturing attention. In the VCG process, students learned to create digital content, which promoted digital skills. This included internet searching, information management, digital identity, and content manipulation (Hockly, 2012). Evaluating software and resources cultivated digital and organizational skills by supporting the creation and sharing of materials and the understanding of information patterns (Berger, 2010). Video projects also aid in the creation of logical flowcharts (Akdeniz, 2017).
In addition to developing language skills, video projects facilitate collaborative interaction through a product- and process-based paradigm. Effective communication, as elucidated by Nunan (1989), requires the skillful orchestration of interpersonal skills that include information assimilation, articulate expression, intonational finesse, and temporal management. During the preparation phase, students actively engage in organizational study. They determine video content requirements, strategize discourse, and choose optimal delivery modalities (Dariyemez, 2020). This finding is consistent with the increased fluency scores and student perceptions.
The VCG process, grounded in constructivism, also involves assimilating and organizing experiences to enhance existing mental structures. Metacognition is essential to this self-directed learning (Cohen et al., 2004). The current pedagogical approach integrated language, cognition, interaction, and technology skills, and fostered self-regulation for effective speaking. This progress can be attributed to the strong pedagogical potential of video projects in refining organizational skills (Dzekoe, 2017).
In conclusion, this study highlights the significant impact of Video Creation and Grammar (VCG) activities on enhancing various aspects of foreign language speaking skills among pre-service teachers. While significant improvements were observed in fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary, and organizational skills, limited progress was noted in grammar proficiency. The active learning approach, which prioritizes communication over memorizing grammar, contributed to this result, highlighting the importance of a balanced approach to language teaching. In addition, integrating real-life communication tasks, peer and teacher feedback mechanisms, and student autonomy in topic selection facilitated holistic skill development. Furthermore, the VCG process not only improved language skills but also fostered digital literacy, metacognition, and self-regulated learning. These results highlight the educational benefits of integrating video projects into language education to develop comprehensive language development and 21st-century skills among learners.
Recommendations
Although VCG activities are effective in enhancing students' speaking skills, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations, such as the small number of participants and the absence of a control group. Therefore, we recommend that future studies should be conducted with larger sample sizes and control groups to increase the reliability of the findings. Based on the result, the following recommendations can be offered:
For curriculum designers:
* VCG activities can be considered an appropriate technology-supported approach that can be easily applied outside the classroom to improve English speaking skills in terms of supporting students' professional development and collaborative work on real-life contexts.
* During this process, literacy skills that will enable students to produce meaningful materials with digital objects and programs that guide them in this process can be designed.
* Additionally, the videos regularly created by students can serve as a portfolio assessment tool to evaluate their skill development, both by themselves and by experts.
* Based on the feedback provided by students in this study, improvements were observed in various other aspects, including cooperation, communication, creativity, critical thinking skills, motivation, self-confidence, and responsibility. Consequently, video generation activities could be incorporated into other learning domains to achieve similar outcomes.
For ELT Practitioners:
* Considering the positive impact of VCG activities on developing 21st-century skills, foreign language teachers should be encouraged to incorporate VCG activities in hybrid lesson designs due to its ease of implementation and cost-effectiveness.
* VCG tasks can be used to design active experiences for students to acquire communication-oriented skills in real-life contexts.
* It is also important to consider the difficulties students may face in integrating grammar rules into speaking practices. Therefore, it will be important to provide flexible time and appropriate feedback.
* In addition, efforts should be made to create favorable conditions for students to produce their videos to the best of their abilities, taking into account any potential challenges they may face during the application. Thus, adequate time, feedback, and technical support should be provided to assist students who lack technological knowledge in dealing with any technical difficulties they may encounter during the VCG process.
For ELT student teachers:
* Although there are various challenges, active participation in VCG activities can contribute positively to the development of speaking skills such as fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation, and organization. It may also be suggested that students should make an effort to use grammar rules correctly.
* Getting to know different multimedia resources in the VCG process and exploring technology tools and sharing platforms for video creation and editing can be useful in developing digital literacy skills.
* It is important to evaluate the feedback from instructors and peers on the video content in order to improve language skills and learning performance.
For researchers:
* Longitudinal studies can be conducted to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of VCG on EFL learners' speaking skill development.
* By comparing VCG with different teaching methods through control group studies, new insights can be gained on the effectiveness of VCG.
* Given the increasing prevalence of video channels among middle-level students, research can be conducted on the effect of VCG on the speaking development of students in this age group.
* Further research could be conducted to investigate the impact of different types of videos on students' speech development.
Statements of Publication Ethics
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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