Abstract
In the age of artificial intelligence, one of the main goals of education today is to produce innovative and productive individuals with 21st century skills, who can think creatively, solve problems, think critically, and have strong collaboration and communication skills. This study examines the impact of STEM-based lesson plans that incorporate knowledge-based life problems (APoKS) and visual-physical programming activities on middle school students' 21st century and computational thinking (CT) skills. The study involved 15 middle school students enrolled in a summer course and three science teachers. A 30-hour intervention was delivered over two weeks, covering topics such as the solar system, force and motion, renewable energy, electrical circuits and sound. Data were collected using the Computational Thinking Skills Self-Efficacy Perception Scale and the 21st Century Skills Scale. After implementation, educators provided insight through semi-structured interviews and reflective diaries. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, while qualitative data were examined using content analysis. Results indicate that the activities significantly improved students' 21st century thinking and CT self-efficacy. High impact improvements were observed in algorithm design, problem solving, data processing, programming and confidence. Educators confirmed these findings, noting the development of students' 21st-century and CT skills. Recommendations for future implementation and research are provided based on the findings.
Keywords: Programming, STEM, 21st century skills, computational thinking, self-efficacy, secondary school students
Öz
Yapay zekâ çaǧında günümüz eǧitiminin temel hedeflerinden biri 21. yy becerilerine sahip yaratıcı düşünebilen, problem çözebilen, eleştirel düşünebilen, işbirliǧi ve iletişim becerileri kuvvetli, yenilikçi ve üretken bireyler yetiştirmektir. Bu çalışmada fen bilgisi eǧiticilerinin hazırladıkları Bilgi Temelli Hayat Problemleri içeren FeTeMM·e dayalı ders planları ile görsel ve fiziksel programlama etkinliklerinin ortaokul öǧrencilerinin 21.yy ve bilgi işlemsel düşünme (BİD) becerilerine etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışma grubunu yaz kursuna katılan 15 ortaokul öǧrencisi ve 3 fen bilgisi eǧiticisi oluşturmaktadır. Uygulama iki haftada 30 saatlik müdahaleyle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Uygulamada ortaokul fen bilgisi dersi konularından güneş sistemi ve ötesi, kuvvet ve hareket, kuvvet ve enerji, yenilenebilir enerji, elektrik devreleri ile ses ve özellikleri konularında etkinlikler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veri toplama aracı olarak Bilgi İşlemsel Düşünme Becerisi Özyeterlik Algısı ölçeǧi ile Ortaokul Öǧrencilerine Yönelik 21. Yüzyıl Becerileri Ölçeǧi kullanılmıştır. Uygulama sonrasında eǧiticilerden yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme ve yansıtıcı günlükler yoluyla ortaokul öǧrencilerinin 21. yy ve BİD becerilerine ilişkin görüşleri alınmıştır. Nicel veriler Wilcoxon İşaretli Sıralar testiyle analiz edilmiş, nitel veriler ise içerik analizi yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Bulgulara göre etkinliklerin ortaokul öǧrencilerinin 21.yy düşünme becerileri ve bilgi işlemsel düşünme (BİD) öz yeterlik algısı üzerinde anlamlı bir fark oluşturduǧu görülmüştür. Öǧrencilerin 21. yy becerilerinde yüksek etki düzeyinde bir deǧişim olduǧu, BİD öz yeterlik algılarında ise algoritma tasarlama, problem çözme, veri işleme, temel programlama ve özgüven boyutlarının hepsinde yüksek etki düzeyinde gelişme olduǧu göze çarpmaktadır. Eǧiticiler de nicel bulguları destekleyen şekilde öǧrencilerinin 21. yy becerileri ve BİD becerilerinin uygulama sonrası geliştirdiǧini düşünmektedirler. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular doǧrultusunda uygulama sürecine ve gelecek araştırmalara yönelik öneriler sunulmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Programlama, FeTeMM, 21. yy becerileri, bilgi-işlemsel düşünme, öz yeterlik, ortaokul öǧrencileri
INTRODUCTION
In the age of artificial intelligence, the welfare level of countries is measured depending on their strength in the cyber environment, their economic stability and their ability to produce their own technologies in terms of scientific developments (Davenport, 2018). According to the concept that examines the impact of technology on the labour force based on Schumpeter's concept of "creative destruction", innovation will lead to the decline of old technologies and sectors, causing job losses and sectoral transformations (Askun, 2024; Yavuz-Aksakal & Ulgen, 2021). Within the scope of this transformation, in the 6th wave covering the period between 2020-2060, individuals who can write their own codes and work in harmony with 21st century skills stand out as digital citizens that countries want to prepare for the future, especially in the artificial intelligence era (Eteng et al., 2022; Yilmaz & Yilmaz, 2023). Accordingly, education systems have to be restructured to educate individuals who are entrepreneurial, innovative and can use technology effectively (Çiftci et al., 2021; Kazakoff et al., 2013; Perkovic & Settle, 2010). Because most 21st century students are still being educated in 19th century school organisations with 20th century pedagogical approaches (Amadi, 2022; Schleicher, 2018). This situation reveals that education systems have difficulty in keeping up with the requirements of the digital age and teaching methods need to be updated (Yalap & Gazioglu, 2023). In order for digital transformation to be effective in education, it is of great importance to restructure education policies and teaching strategies in an innovative way with a planning based on a system approach (Bozkurt et al., 2021). When the reports that shape education policies are analyzed, it is seen that the competencies expected from learners have undergone a significant transformation in the last 20 years. While in 1998, the basic skill that should be taught to students was defined as 'learning to use technology', as of 2007, this approach has been transformed into 'using technology to learn'. Because the 21st century is quite different from the 20th century in terms of the skills that people need for work, citizenship and self-realisation (Dede, 2010). By 2016, it is emphasised that students should exhibit 'transformative learning with technology' skills (ISTE, 2023). The implementation of digital transformation in education in a planned manner and on the basis of a system approach is critical in terms of reshaping learning-teaching processes in an efficient and effective way (Bozkurt et al., 2021). Because the system approach aims to ensure that the elements that interact with each other work together and that the problem experienced in any part is solved without affecting the whole system. This principle is important for the successful implementation of digital transformation in education, because the difficulties encountered in the digital transformation process need to be solved quickly and made more efficient without damaging the overall functioning of the system. One of the most important approaches supporting digital transformation in education has been STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) education. Since 2001, this interdisciplinary approach, which has become widespread, aims to provide students with the ability to solve real-world problems (Bybee, 2013; Cheng et al, 2021). Thanks to STEM education, students have the opportunity to develop critical thinking, problem solving, creativity and collaboration skills by using their academic knowledge practically (Corlu et al., 2014). This approach overlaps with John Dewey's view that disciplines should not be separated from each other and that students should receive an experience-based education in which they interact with the ever-changing world (Johnson & Reed, 2008; Sublette, 2013). In fact, although this approach has become widespread in the 21st century, although it is not named with such a framework, when the fields of study and inventions developed by Turkish-Islamic scholars are examined, it is seen that they specialised in more than one field in many branches such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine and physics. Considering the solutions found by Al-Jazari, the pioneer of robotics, to the real problems of the day by combining engineering, mathematics, geometry and art, it is possible to say that the first examples of the STEM approach were also used in the 12th century (Polatgil, 2020).
Today, the integrated teaching framework is accepted as a theoretical roadmap for STEM education practitioners, teacher educators and researchers in developing 21st century skills and competencies (Çorlu & Çallı, 2017; Hoeg & Bencze, 2017). Within the framework of Integrated STEM (I-STEM), knowledge-based life problems (АРоК 5) are placed at the centre. These problems have a structure that allows examining the interaction of multiple variables and encourages students to develop different solutions within certain limitations rather than directing them to a single correct solution (Basaran, 2018; Corlu & Calli, 2017). Therefore, in order to overcome such problems, individuals need to have 21st century skills. B-STEM education allows students to use their mathematics, science literacy skills and problem-solving skills and to develop their technological literacy by focusing on open-ended exploration and real-world problems in engineering design processes (Falloon, 2019; Honey et al., 2014). As a result, today's education systems should not only teach the use of technology, but also aim to raise students as individuals who can use computer science effectively, enrich learning processes with technology, and learn by critically filtering information (Bers, 2019; Mezirow, 1996). Innovative educational approaches such as B-STEM provide a radical transformation in education systems in line with this goal, while eliminating inequalities in computer education for all (Weintrop et al., 2014). It is also an effective approach in developing positive attitudes towards science (Koca, 2018).
21st Century Skills and Sub-Dimensions
In many sources for 21st century skills, the concepts of 4C (Communication, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity) as communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity are mentioned (P21, 2019). However, according to Mazzola-Randles (2020), connectedness, as a fifth dimension, is now considered among these skills. The connectivity dimension includes qualities that learners will need in the 4th industrial revolution, such as digital well-being, commitment to identity learning, developing digital content, and building and maintaining communities (Mazzola-Randles, 2020). This concept implies that the learner connects to networks in line with their own learning needs or creates their own learning networks, that learning is not uniform and linear, and that non-linear asymmetric learning approaches are used in digital environments and online networks today. Creativity, on the other hand, is defined as thinking outside traditional ways of thinking, challenging one's own skills and abilities, nurturing a sense of curiosity, using imagination and being productive (Voogt & Robin, 2012).
Critical thinking 18 a skill that increases the self-development and autonomy of the individual, including self-management, self-organisation, self-regulation, self-direction, self-evaluation, independent thinking, autonomous action and management skills (Facione, 1990; Mete, 2021). Critical thinking is a competence that promotes analytical thinking, problem-solving abilities and high-level thinking skills, enabling the individual to defend his/her rights and use his/her emotional intelligence (Mazzola-Randle, 2020). It is important for the individual to be consistent in his/her thoughts, to distinguish between reliable and unreliable information while searching for the truth, to make judgements with sufficient evidence, and to perceive the relationships between the data obtained as a result of research and observations (Búlegin & İlkörücü, 2023). Although the importance of the family among environmental factors in the development of critical thinking is important, it is known that educational interventions especially at a young age, such as critical-based science activities, are effective in developing students' cognitive and affective skills (Búlegin & Îlkôrücü, 2023; Mete, 2021). In addition, it has been observed that the development of this skill has a strong predictive effect on students' academic achievement, and academic achievement and critical thinking are highly effective on mathematics achievement, which is a dimension of STEM, as the grade level increases (Alsancak & Aybek, 2023; Er, 2024). STEM-supported educational environments are a concept that includes teamwork, open-mindedness, conflict management, self-motivation, entrepreneurship, and leadership through interaction, especially in diverse and heterogeneous environments by supporting the dimension of cooperation and communication (Herdem & Unal, 2018; Karakaya & Avgin, 2016).
Computational Thinking Skills and Sub-Dimensions
Computational thinking (CT), a 21st century skill, is a competence that provides positive contributions to interdisciplinary learning processes aiming to enable individuals to solve problems using technology (Gretter & Yadav, 2016; Güllü Egin & Sözer, 2024; Tosik-Gün & Güyer, 2019). According to Wing (2006), computational thinking skill 1s a way of thinking that people of all ages should acquire as a skill that includes problem solving using the basic concepts of computer science, designing systems and understanding human behaviour using computer science concepts. Computational thinking skill, which 1s aimed to be developed at an early age by being integrated into the preschool programmes of countries, is now considered as one of the basic life skills such as arithmetic, reading and writing (Macrides et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2022; Ugras et al., 2025). This skill, which is based on computer science and coding, contributes to the development of problem solving, analytical thinking, creative thinking and algorithmic thinking skills needed in mathematics and science (Küçükaydın et al., 2024; Yildiz-Durak et al, 2019).
In the literature, it 1s emphasized that applications that integrate coding and computational thinking are needed to raise individuals who can think computationally, solve problems and are open to innovations (Demir & Seferoglu, 2017, Korkmaz et al., 2017). One way to provide individuals with these skills is programming and computer science teaching (Cross et al., 2016; Kert et al., 2020). In particular, teaching computer science at an early age is considered very important for children's cognitive skills, STEM subject learning, 21st century skills, and future career directions (Cantlon et al., 2024; Li et al., 2020). Today, artificial intelligence (AT) -supported STEM education, STEM+AI, is also used to improve learners' computational thinking skills and questioning ability (Li et al., 2023). Algorithmic thinking is a systematic problem-solving method consisting of well-defined and sequential steps that can be performed in a certain period of time (Kanaki & Kalogiannakis, 2022). Algorithmic thinking is the ability to create and apply algorithms to define and solve problems (Barr & Stephenson, 2011). This process involves dividing a problem into sub-steps and developing algorithms for each step. According to Wing (2006), algorithmic thinking is a concept that supports problem solving not only in computer science but in all fields, is closely related to CT and is often used interchangeably. However, CT is a broader concept that includes algorithmic thinking as well as other skills such as data representation, modeling, simulation and debugging. Abstraction refers to identifying the basic concepts and data needed to solve complex problems, extracting similarities and ignoring unnecessary elements (Kert et al., 2020). Abstraction includes stages such as data collection, pattern recognition, and modeling (Shute et al., 2017) and enables the elimination of unnecessary details in achieving the goal. Decomposition is the process of breaking a problem into smaller and manageable sub-problems (Barr & Stephenson, 2011). This method enables solving complex problems, detecting bugs and developing reusable, modular code (Kelleher & Pausch, 2005). This approach plays a critical role in algorithm design, helping to generate effective solutions to large and complex problems. Evaluation is the process of testing courses (Gümüş & Eroǧlu, 2024; Uçar & Sezek, 2024). Since more studies have been conducted on meaningful learning and attitude in science education (Gümüş & Eroǧlu; 2024; Soypak & Eskici, 2023), it is thought that examining the effect of a learning process supported by visual and physical programming activities in middle school science education on learners' 21st century skills and CT self-efficacy will contribute to the literature.
The Significance of the Study
It is stated that educational tools and environments that support 21st century skills are insufficient in the education programs implemented in Turkey, and learning objectives are not clearly defined (Kuruday1oëlu & Soysal, 2019). Especially in PISA reports, when Turkey's achievement average is analyzed by years, it is seen that there is a significant decline in the field of science, so educational interventions in this field are important (Aydin & Cilek, 2024). Bozkurt and СаКи (2016) found that students' 21st century skills decreased as their grade levels increased and did not develop sufficiently during the teaching process. It is also emphasized that teachers lack knowledge on how to develop and measure these skills, which prevents students from acquiring these skills (Yalçın, 2019). In particular, it was stated that the activities supporting creativity are limited and the current curriculum is insufficient to develop students' creative thinking skills (Kelesoglu, 2017; Yurdakal, 2018). In this context, curricula should be prepared to support active, collaborative, project-based and student-centered approaches. It has been observed that even short-term robotic interventions involving programming, especially in summer courses, improve students' computational thinking skills and increase their self-efficacy in rural areas where students experience educational inequality (Shang et al., 2023). Similarly, in an experimental study, Pellas (2024) reported that summer course activities involving robotics and programming with concrete programming tools also improved abstraction, problem decomposition, and visuospatial reasoning skills in preschool children. In addition, it is noteworthy that programming activities with visual and physical programming tools are mostly used in scientific process skills and problem solving skills of learners in science courses, but there is a limited number of studies for computational thinking and 21st century skills (Authors, 2022). For this reason, in this study, science lesson plans including visual and physical programming activities for middle school students were implemented in a summer course and their effects on students' 2 1st century skills and computational thinking skills were examined. Thus, it is aimed to contribute to the elimination of the current uncertainty by aiming to understand the effect of computational thinking on technology integration more clearly. It will be investigated how to integrate computational thinking skills not only at the level of programming instruction and individual self-efficacy, but also how to integrate them more effectively into classroom practices. Furthermore, concrete data will be obtained on how STEM-based educational approaches contribute to developing students' 21st century skills and supporting their ability to solve real-world problems. In this context, 1t 1s planned to provide a new perspective on how technology integration can be adapted to teaching processes and how students can be more effectively involved in these processes. The study 1s expected to provide strategies and methods to support the effective integration of computer science teaching in the classroom and to eliminate current uncertainties.
In this study, science lesson plans including visual and physical programming activities for middle school students were implemented and their effects on students' 21st century skills and computational thinking skills were examined. In this context, it was aimed to understand the effect of computational thinking on technology integration more clearly and to contribute to the elimination of existing uncertainties. The study examined how computational thinking skills, which are only addressed at the level of programming instruction and individual self-efficacy, can be integrated more effectively in classroom practices. It also provided concrete data on how STEM-based educational approaches contribute to developing students' 21st century skills and supporting their ability to solve real-world problems. In this context, the purpose of this study is to examine the impact of educator-developed visual and physical programming activities on middle school students' 21st century skills and computational thinking skills. The research seeks answers to the following questions:
1) Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of students regarding 21st century skills?
2) Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of students' self-efficacy perceptions of computational thinking skills?
3) According to educators;
a) What is the impact of programming-based science activities on students' 21st century skills?
b) What is the impact of programming-based science activities on students' self-efficacy perceptions of computational thinking skills?
c) What is the impact of programming-based science activities on students' challenges encountered in implementation and suggestions for implementation?
This study aims to provide a new perspective on how technology integration can be adapted to teaching processes by revealing the effects of educational activities on students' skill development.
METHOD
Research Design
In the study, explanatory design, one of the mixed methods researches, was used to examine the effect of science activities based on visual and physical programming on the 21st century and computational thinking (CT) skills of middle school students. The aim of mixed methods research in which qualitative and quantitative research methods are used together is to reduce the limitations that may arise from the use of only one of the research methods, to obtain more comprehensive data and to strengthen the findings (Creswell, 2013; Firat et. al, 2014).
Two stages of the explanatory design were followed in the study. As seen in Figure 3, in the first stage, the quantitative data obtained from the study group by applying the pre-test and post-test were analyzed in order to determine the 21st century and computational thinking skills of the students. Then, qualitative data were used to explain the quantitative results obtained in the first stage. The results were obtained by interpreting both quantitative and qualitative findings together.
Study Group
The study group, which was selected by purposive sampling method, consisted of 15 secondary school students and three educators (Е, £2, F3). The improvement in students" 21st-century and computational thinking skills was elaborated through qualitative data gathered from the insights of the educators. The educators, to whom the first author provided training on visual and physical programming as a coordinator instructor, are studying in the department of science teaching and are experts in visual and physical programming and 3D design. In this study, the development of students' skills was reported from the perspective of pre-service teachers based on their direct classroom experiences and observations throughout the intervention process. The secondary school students in the study group, 60% (n=9) were male and 40% (n=6) were female. Sixty per cent of the students (n=9) completed the 5th grade and 40% (п=6) completed the 6th grade. It was determined that only 20% (n=3) had experience in visual programming and the remaining 80% (n=12) had not participated in any study in this field. It was observed that none of the students had experience in 3D modelling. While 33.3% (п=5) of the students had experience in physical programming, 66.7% (n=10) did not participate in any study in this field. Within the scope of Arduino activities, 33.3% (n=5) of the students performed "Led Experiment", but 66.7% (n=10) did not have any Arduino experience. The rate of students with course experience was found to be 26.7% (n=4), while 73.3% (n=11) had not attended any course before. It is seen that the students mostly had no previous experience in visual and physical programming, and the students who stated that they knew about it encountered basic level activities. The students voluntarily decided which group they wanted to be in and determined a group name. The Civcivler group mainly consisted of male and female students who had completed the Sth grade and were studying at a public school. The Magnafen group is a group of four students, all female students attending a private school. The Hababam group is a group of six male students who have completed the 5th or 6th grade and attend public and private schools.
Data Collection Tools & Process
The implementation was planned as a summer school and was carried out in a 10-day intervention (30 hours) of three hours each lasting two weeks. In the implementation, activities based on visual and physical programming were carried out on the subjects of solar system and beyond, force and motion, force and energy, renewable energy, electrical circuits, and sound and its properties from the 5%, 6 and 7% grade science course subjects. The Computational Thinking Skill Self-Efficacy Perception Scale, which was developed by Gúlbahar, Kert and Kalelioǧlu (2019), was used in the study. The scale demonstrated strong validity, as indicated by a EMO value of .966 and a significant Bartlett's test (р <.05), as well as high reliability, with item -total correlations ranging from .386 to .632 and Cronbach's alpha coefficients between .762 and .930. The study also utilized the 21st Century Skills Scale for Secondary School Students developed by Mete (2021). This scale demonstrated strong validity with a KMO value of .954, a significant Bartlett's test (p < .05), and a confirmed factor structure through exploratory factor analysis, alongside high reliability evidenced by a Cronbach's alpha of .81 and a test-retest correlation of .72. In addition, after the implementation, semi-structured interviews and reflective diaries were conducted with the educators who carried out the science activities based on visual and physical programming to obtain their opinions on the 21st century and ICT skills of middle school students. Due to the small sample size, quantitative data were analysed with Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test, one of the non-parametric tests, and qualitative data were analysed with content analysis method.
Validity and Reliability
This study adopted a mixed methods approach, collecting data from multiple sources to enhance validity and reliability (Тори et al., 2014). In the quantitative phase, the validity of the data collection instruments was evaluated in relation to the literature, and expert opinions were consulted during the development of new instruments. The rationale for the selection of the methods used was explained in detail, and instructional materials were prepared in alignment with the learning outcomes of the middle school science curriculum set by the Ministry of National Education. The consistency of the data was checked, and the reliability of the quantitative instruments was ensured. In the qualitative phase, the characteristics of the study group and the process of its selection were described, and both the implementation process and the researcher's role were elaborated. During data collection, participants' voluntary consent was obtained, and triangulation was employed. Inter-coder agreement was calculated during the analysis of qualitative data, and necessary measures were taken to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collection tools.
Procedure
In the study, each educator taught two lessons based on the lesson plans they prepared for 10 days and the flow of the process is given in Table 2. Each lesson lasted for three hours. On the last day of the first week, each of the educators guided a group while designing a Scratch project with the students. In the second week, on the last day of the week, the same group completed the Arduino experiment by guiding the students.
The syllabus of the summer course was implemented with the lesson plans developed by the educators after the gains and sub-gains were determined 1n accordance with the MEB education programme. The educators followed the students during the process, observed the students who were suitable for working together and took notes. Since the students had no previous experience in robotics and programming, the first week of the activities was carried out with only visual programming and the second week with physical programming activities.
As shown in Table 2, students created two group projects each in both visual and physical programming, guided by the educators throughout the process. The educators evaluated the projects prepared by the students within the framework of 21st-century skills and computational thinking skills. The projects titled Civcivler, Hababam, and Magnafen were analyzed in terms of critical competencies such as problem-solving, algorithmic thinking, creativity, collaboration, and independent work. During the evaluation process, feedback was provided based on the students' technical accuracy, innovative approaches, and engagement in the project development phases. In this way, the development of both cognitive and collaborative skills of the students was supported.
Figure 4 presents examples showing that students engaged with topics such as force and motion, electrical circuits, and programming through experiential activities. Students explored the components of the Arduino -based Mbot, controlled it via Bluetooth, and investigated the relationship between force and incline through inclined plane experiments. Each student later raced their robot on behalf of their group. In the second image, a force variable was defined using Scratch to simulate Newton's law of gravity, and learning was supported through gamification. In the topic of electrical circuits, after introducing circuit components using Arduino and Tinkercad, the concept of resistance was demonstrated. By designing LED circuits, students experienced a sense of digital community within a virtual classroom environment.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Descriptive statistical tests were used to analyze the quantitative data in the study. Since the data did not show a normal distribution, the Wilcoxon test, one of the non-parametric tests, was chosen to understand the pre-and post-intervention situations. Descriptive statistical tests were used to analyze the quantitative data in the study. Before conducting the analyses, the normality of the data was assessed by examining skewness and kurtosis values. Additionally, since the number of observations was below 30, the Shapiro-Wilk test was conducted to further evaluate whether the data were normally distributed (Pallant, 2007). The results showed that while most of the pre- and post-test scores had p-values greater than .05, indicating normal distribution (e.g., 2 1st-century skills pre-test: р = .630; computational thinking pre-test: р = .309; post-test: р = .093), the 21st-century skills post-test score significantly deviated from normality (р = .001 <.05). Therefore, due to the violation of the normality assumption in this variable and to maintain consistency in statistical comparisons, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test-a non-parametric alternative-was used to analyze pre- and post-intervention differences. Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) defined effect size as a measure of the magnitude of the difference between the means of two groups. Cohen (1988) and Pallant (2007) stated that an r value between 0.1 and 0.3 indicates a small effect size, between 0.3 and 0.5 indicates a medium effect size, and 0.5 or above represents a large effect size.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data were analyzed using the content analysis method, and NVIVO 11 was utilized to systematically analyze and organize the data. Themes, codes, and sub-codes were derived through an inductive approach by the researcher. To ensure reliability, the themes, codes, and sub-codes were reviewed in collaboration with an expert. Inter-coder reliability was calculated using the formula developed by Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 64), in which matching codes are categorized as "Agreement" and differing ones as "Disagreement." The reliability formula is: Agreement Percentage = Agreement / (Agreement + Disagreement) · 100. During the analysis of the qualitative data from the summer course, it was observed that the researcher and the expert reached consensus in cases of discrepancy, resulting in a high inter-coder agreement percentage of 96%.
Research Ethics
In this study, all ethical procedures have been followed. All participants have been informed about the purpose, process, and ethical rights of the research. All information collected was anonymised, confidential and only available to the researcher and her supervisor. Pseudonyms were used throughout the studies to replace educators' and students' real names. Particular ethical issues related to the study and ethical permission numbers from the University of Atatiirk University are noted at the end of the article.
FINDINGS
Middle School Students' 21st Century Skills
When the pre- and post-intervention scores of the 21st Century Skills Scale were compared, the results indicated a positive effect of the implemented training or activities on the participants. Although participants" perceptions of their 21st century skills were relatively high before the intervention (X = 4.01, SD = 0.67), a noticeable increase was observed after the intervention (X = 4.57, SD = 0.57).
According to the 21st Century Skills Scale, a significant difference was found in favor of the post-test scores. Based on the effect size formula, the calculated r value was 0.67, indicating that the intervention had a strong positive impact on students' 21st century skills and was found to be highly effective.
Middle School Students' Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Computational Thinking Skills
As shown in Table 4, the comparison of pre- and post-intervention scores on the Computational Thinking Self-Efficacy Scale and its sub-dimensions indicates that the implemented training had a positive impact on the participants. In the data processing sub-dimension, participants' scores were at a low level before the intervention (X = 2.36, SD = 1.35), but a significant increase was observed afterward (X = 4.59, SD = 0.41). In the basic programming sub-dimension, the average score increased from (X = 3.17, SD = 1.20) before the intervention to (X = 4.45, SD = 0.61) after the intervention. For the self-confidence sub-dimension, scores rose from (X = 3.05, SD = 1.08) pre-intervention to (X =4.35, SD = 0.61) post-intervention. In the algorithm sub-dimension, the average score increased from (X = 3.25, SD = 0.92) before the intervention to (X = 4.39, SD = 0.43) after the intervention. Finally, in the problem-solving sub-dimension, scores rose from (X = 3.02, SD = 0.86) to (X = 4.45, SD = 0.50) following the intervention.
Table 5 shows that the intervention created a significant difference in the sub-dimensions of data processing [Z = -3.184, р = 0.001, г = 0.851], basic programming [Z = -2.589, р = 0.001, г = 0.692], self-confidence [Z = -2.366, р = 0.018, г = 0.632], algorithm [Z = -3.043, р = 0.002, г = 0.813], and problem-solving [7 = -3.181, p= 0.001, г = 0.850].
A particularly strong effect was observed in data processing (r = 0.851), algorithm (г = 0.813), and problem-solving (т = 0.850) skills, indicating that the intervention effectively enhanced participants' cognitive processes and problem-solving abilities. In the basic programming sub-dimension [Z = -2.589, р = 0.001, г = 0.692], a large effect size was identified, demonstrating a significant improvement in participants' algorithmic thinking and programming competencies. When the general situation is evaluated, it is seen that there is a high effect size [Z=-3.301,p=0.001,r=0.882] between the total scores pre and post tests and the implementation made a strong difference. While a strong effect was achieved especially in technical and cognitive skills, an effective but relatively lower improvement was observed in the self-confidence dimension compared to the others.
The Effect of Programming-Based Science Activities on Secondary School Students According to Educators
In Figure 5, the experiences of the educators during the two weeks of the summer course were divided into categories and subcategories by content analysis based on their daily reflective diaries and their responses to the interview questions at the end of the process.
Educators' Opinions on the Effect of Activities on Students" 21st Century Skills
At the end of the summer course, it was observed that the educators provided positive feedback on the development of students' 21st century skills. In the creativity dimension, it was emphasized that students developed original and innovative approaches to their project ideas. In terms of critical thinking, it was stated that students made joint decisions by discussing their ideas and produced alternative solutions by questioning. In communication and co-operation skills, it was observed that students established effective communication, harmonised in group work and developed joint projects. In the connectivity dimension, it was stated that students gained experience in accessing resources and collaborating by using digital tools for educational purposes. The quotations of the educators on the subject are shown in Table 6.
Educators 'Opinions on the Effect of Activities on Students' Computational Thinking Skills
They state that the educators observed the development of their students" algorithmic thinking skills after the summer course. In terms of decomposition, they state that although they had difficulties in the beginning, they have improved in time in terms of decomposing problems into their components and producing solutions. In terms of abstraction skills, they observed that they were able to identify possible problems by predicting certain scenarios, such as transitions between scenes in Scratch. In the evaluation process, they stated that their ability to analyse the codes, to notice deficiencies and to produce better solutions increased. In terms of debugging and error finding, they stated that both they and their students developed these skills by conducting one-to-one trials during Arduino applications. In terms of pattern recognition, they stated that students were able to distinguish structural similarities and deficiencies when they examined the codes. Finally, they state that generalisation skills have also improved because students are able to generalise over certain code structures and problems and adapt them to new situations. The quotations of the educators on the subject are shown in Table 7.
In summary, when the common opinions of the educators regarding the summer course were analysed, they stated that all of their students were able to follow the visual and physical programming steps correctly and perform the given tasks completely. The implementations improved the algorithmic thinking skills of the students. It was observed that the students, who initially had limited knowledge about Scratch and Arduino, were able to produce their own solutions by better understanding the problem solving steps in the process. In terms of decomposing problems, it was stated that students first handled complex projects as a whole, but over time they made them more manageable by dividing them into smaller components. In terms of abstraction skills, it was stated that students were able to comprehend basic concepts and apply them in different projects, and focus on important components by eliminating unnecessary details. In the evaluation process, it was reported that students started to determine the most appropriate methods by analysing their solutions individually and in groups. It was emphasised that debugging skills improved and students were able to detect errors faster and produce solutions by examining the codes line by line. Within the scope of pattern recognition skills, it was stated that students started to recognise similar code blocks and were able to use these structures in different projects. Finally, it was stated that generalization skills improved, and students could easily adapt the concepts they learned in a project to different problem situations. At the end of the implementation, the educators thought that the lesson plans and activities they prepared kept the students' interest in the lesson alive and created a basis for new learning and questions. The fact that the activities they prepared worked correctly and enabled the students to achieve the targeted gains increased their self-confidence. It is seen that the perspective of the educators, who want to develop and use these skills in their future lives, has changed positively towards their professions and the course. According to the evaluations of the educators in the projects of the groups, concepts such as sound, force and energy were concretised in the projects of the groups. For example, the Civcivler group demonstrated how to use sound as a warning tool with the security alarm project. The Magnafen group integrated science knowledge into real life in the gas alarm project and had the opportunity to experience science in practice by using sensors that detect methane gas. Technological tools such as Arduino and sensors were used by the groups and integrated with science education. This process increased students' technological literacy and made them more competent in scientific experimentation and research. The Hababam group enabled students to develop innovative thinking skills by combining technology with science education through the design of a parking sensor.
Educators' Experiences: Challenges and Recommendations
Based on the observations of the educators during the summer course, their experiences regarding the difficulties and suggestions they encountered in practice were analysed. The quotations in Table 8 and Table 9 convey their experiences about the process.
Challenges
Among the difficulties encountered during the summer course from the educators' point of view, it was stated that some students' lack of basic technology and programming knowledge caused them to have less time to produce more creative examples within 30 hours. It was observed that students needed more time to transition to advanced topics. The opinions of the educators on this issue are given in Table 8. During the summer course, the educators stated that time management was one of the biggest challenges. The limited time to complete the projects caused the students to rush through some stages and not focus enough on the details. In addition, technical problems experienced in the integration of physical and digital tools, especially when sensors did not work correctly, were among the factors that could negatively affect students' motivation. In addition, the lack of active participation of some students prevented the efficient completion of the projects by making intra-group co-operation difficult. It was observed that the individual working habits of the students were effective on group dynamics and this situation made co-operation difficult.
In the creative thinking process, it was observed that students had difficulty in problem solving skills due to the complexity of the projects they determined. It was emphasised that such projects require more guidance, especially students need additional guidance to produce creative solutions. Although the educators thought that the determined project topics were sufficient to provide basic knowledge and skills, they stated that it would be useful to increase the time for the development of more original and creative projects.
Recommendations
Based on their experiences in the summer school, the educators shared their experiences and made suggestions in terms of concretisation of abstract concepts, development of problem solving and algorithmic thinking, interactive learning, creativity and innovative thinking, cooperation and teamwork, and attitude towards learning. The quotations in Table 9 include the suggestions for the use of visual and physical programming in science education based on the students' experiences during the summer course.
When the table is summarised, educators who use visual and physical programming applications in science education emphasise that this process provides significant contributions to students in terms of concretisation, problem solving, interactive learning, creativity, collaboration and positive learning attitudes. It was suggested to develop more storytelling and game-based content and to increase the number of interdisciplinary projects and applications for real-world problems. It is also suggested to add activities that encourage students to develop more original and innovative solutions by providing opportunities to design their own projects. In general, widespread use of programming in science education is effective for educators in creating a learning environment that strengthens students' 21st century skills.
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
In education, it is known that learning enriched with visual and physical programming activities has been frequently used in recent years to reduce students' misconceptions, increase their self-efficacy and gain permanent learning experiences due to the abstract subjects and high misconceptions of students (Güneş & Küçük, 2022). The topics that visual and physical programming activities generally focus on are examples such as change of state of matter (Karaşahin & Sarı, 2022), force and motion (Uçar & Sezek, 2024), and the use of wearable technologies in teaching electrical circuits (Nugent et al., 2019; Sat et al, 2025). In addition, it is seen that educational interventions are carried out to reduce learners' misconceptions and concretize abstract concepts in subjects such as showing the relationship between cell size and diffusion rate (Derman, 2023) or teaching with visual programming for the circulatory system (Aytekin & Topçu, 2025). However, in this study, it is thought to be important in terms of having an inclusive and integrative perspective in terms of developing and implementing activities by determining achievements for each unit by addressing the subjects in secondary school science education with a spiral program structure. Especially in the 2024 science curriculum, it was seen that activities with more context-based and experience-based approaches were targeted (Torun & Karamustafaoglu, 2025). In this study, lesson plans and activities were prepared to support the 2024 Turkiye Century Maarif Model, and a complementary and complementary approach to the existing programs was adopted.
When the quantitative and qualitative findings of the study were interpreted together, it was seen that the science activities based on visual and physical programming carried out in the summer school made a significant difference on the 21st century thinking skills and CT self-efficacy perception. After analyzing the quantitative data, it was seen that there was a change in students' 21st century skills at a high impact level. In the CT self-efficacy perceptions, it is noteworthy that there is an improvement at a high impact level in all of the dimensions of algorithm designing, problem solving, data processing, basic programming and self-confidence in middle school students after the application. In the literature, it is known that programming activities improve CT and self-efficacy (Ertimit et al., 2025).
When the findings from the structured interviews with the pre-service teachers and the analysis of the reflection diaries were analyzed, it was seen that the summer course students' views on 21st century skills were examined and it was seen that they thought that their problem solving, creativity, cooperation and communication skills were improved. In this study, it is seen that a comprehensive evaluation approach was adopted for the process as a result of evaluating the students' performances with scales as well as supporting them with teachers' opinions. While quantitative data allow for an objective analysis of students' CT skills and the development of 21st century competencies, qualitative data allow for an in-depth examination of students' experiences, thoughts and the transformation in their learning processes throughout the process. In the study, similar results were reached with the studies in which it was realized that students learned to distinguish problems and divide them into sub-steps and were able to create an algorithm using a flowchart in solving the problem (Atabay, 2019). Unlike other studies conducted in secondary school samples (Durmuş, 2024), an increase in learners' 21st century skills was observed. In addition, an increase was observed in critical thinking, problem solving (Koca, 2020) and computational thinking (Durmus, 2024). It is important that the objectives are clear and measurable, especially in teaching programming and computational thinking skills to children (Liu et al., 2024). In this study, measurable goals were set in the lesson plans based on measurable goals with the activities based on the APoKS prepared in the lesson plans, and it was seen that the students achieved the targeted outcomes after the implementation. The coding errors encountered by the students in the projects they prepared both supported their problem-solving skills by developing their critical thinking skills and provided peer-supported development of debugging, patterning and abstraction skills in terms of computational thinking skills. When they integrated the topics they chose in the activities with programming, they went through a process based on life-based learning and context-based learning and actively used mathematics, engineering, technology and design skills in their projects by transferring their skills in an interdisciplinary way (Aytekin & Topcu, 2025; Yüksel et al, 2025).
The findings of the study showed that lesson plans prepared with a STEM approach and block -based programming activities based on APoKS and physical programming activities supported students' development of CT and 21st century skills. Similar to the literature, it is thought that robotics and coding education in science education provides development in areas such as technological adaptation, creative thinking, problem solving, digitalization and 21st century skills (Top € Arabacıoǧlu, 2021; Büyük, 2024; Rapti € Sapounidis, 2024; Yüksel et al, 2025). However, differently, according to the opinion of the educators in this study, visual programming activities could be performed more easily than physical programming. The main reason for this can be thought to be that they need more information in visual programming related to mathematics and that interdisciplinary connections are used more in those activities (Bilgic & Dogusoy, 2023). In this context, enriching the lessons with block-based programming activities, providing students with active participation opportunities, addressing the course outcomes in a real dimension, and using gamified activities can motivate students to both lessons and programming (Bilgic & Dogusoy, 2023). Similarly, it has been emphasized that student-oriented approaches are important in designing educational processes involving information technologies and examining student participation in activities (Y1ldiz-Durak & Saritepeci, 2018; Saritepeci, 2020). In this study, it was observed that the visual and physical programming activities including APoKS for students were useful in programming education in a peer-supported manner. In line with the findings obtained, it was aimed to support students' data interpretation, analyzing data from different information sources, critical thinking in problem solving processes and alternative model development skills targeted by PISA, and it was observed that positive developments were made in this context. As reported by Aydin and Cilek (2024), it is known that a significant number of students have low satisfaction levels, face behaviors such as exclusion and discrimination, and have a low sense of belonging to the school, which may be the reason for the observed low achievement in international exams. Therefore, it is thought that the educational interventions used in this study will be a useful approach in preventing the inequalities of opportunity that students face in education and in overcoming the barriers to education and training processes such as peer bullying that they face at school because they are in a project-based learning environment with peers. Finally, these results show that the intervention was very effective in terms of improving the technical skills of the participants, but additional supportive strategies may be needed to further increase self-confidence.
Limitations & Further Research
* The educational intervention in this study-science activities based on visual and physical programming-was implemented over a 10-day (30-hour) summer school program with a single group. Therefore, future studies could adopt an experimental design with control groups to test students' skills more rigorously or extend the duration of the implementation to allow for a more comprehensive tracking of the process.
* Although many studies on science education and coding tend to suggest supplementary activities without altering the existing curriculum, it is recommended that future research develop and implement a comprehensive science education program grounded in visual and physical programming, followed by an evaluation of its impact.
* Based on the instructors' observations, it is suggested that future projects provide longer-term engagements and more free project time to better support students' creative thinking. This approach is believed to not only foster the development of technical skills but also encourage students to generate original ideas and innovative solutions. It was noted that the use of the 21st-century skill of connectivism remained limited in the planned activities. Future implementations could aim to integrate the use of social networks and social media in educational contexts to allow learners to become part of a research and inquiry-based community, thereby enhancing their Community of Inquiry (Col) experiences.
* The study utilized Hour of Code and Scratch 3.0 for visual programming, and Tinkercad with Arduino for physical programming. Future applications could incorporate diverse educational robotics kits, social robots, or Al-supported coding platforms to broaden the scope of technological engagement.
* The study was limited to voluntary students from public and private schools. Similar studies involving different age groups and individuals with special needs are recommended for future research.
* Activities involving Al-supported coding applications could be designed to enhance students' computational thinking skills and programming self-efficacy within instructional interventions aligned with Computer Science Pedagogical Content Knowledge.
* Finally, to shift the perception of schools from being merely transitional phases to essential parts of life itself, it is proposed that curriculum design move beyond overwhelming students with predefined outcomes. Instead, it should focus on real-life problem solving and interdisciplinary learning experiences, incorporating contemporary technological applications to better prepare students for the demands of the modern world.
Statements of Publication Ethics
In this study, the principles of publication ethics have been adhered to, and the ethical permission for the research has been approved by the Ethics Committee of Ataturk University Institute of Educational Sciences with the document number E-56785782-050.02.04-2200101348 on March 31, 2022.
Researchers' Contribution Rate
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflicts or competing interests to declare.
Acknowledgement
This article is derived from the first author's PhD dissertation completed in 2023 under the supervision of the second author.
Research Article
Received: 6.4.2025
Revised: 12.6.2025
Accepted: 20.6.2025
To cite this article in APA Style
Güneş, H., & Küçük, S. (2025). The impact of visual and physical programming-based science activities on middle school students" 21st century and computational thinking skills. Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education, 14(3), 858-882. https://doi.org/10.14686/buefad.1670825
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*This article is derived from the first author's PhD dissertation completed in 2023 under the supervision of the second author.
*This study was presented as an abstract with the title "The Effect of Programming-Based Science Activities on Secondary School Students' 21st Century and Computational Thinking Skills" at EJER conference on June 8-11, 2023
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Abstract
In the age of artificial intelligence, one of the main goals of education today is to produce innovative and productive individuals with 21st century skills, who can think creatively, solve problems, think critically, and have strong collaboration and communication skills. This study examines the impact of STEM-based lesson plans that incorporate knowledge-based life problems (APoKS) and visual-physical programming activities on middle school students' 21st century and computational thinking (CT) skills. The study involved 15 middle school students enrolled in a summer course and three science teachers. A 30-hour intervention was delivered over two weeks, covering topics such as the solar system, force and motion, renewable energy, electrical circuits and sound. Data were collected using the Computational Thinking Skills Self-Efficacy Perception Scale and the 21st Century Skills Scale. After implementation, educators provided insight through semi-structured interviews and reflective diaries. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, while qualitative data were examined using content analysis. Results indicate that the activities significantly improved students' 21st century thinking and CT self-efficacy. High impact improvements were observed in algorithm design, problem solving, data processing, programming and confidence. Educators confirmed these findings, noting the development of students' 21st-century and CT skills. Recommendations for future implementation and research are provided based on the findings.