Gender Differences in Patients with Substance Use Disorder and Physical/Sexual Abuse: A Preliminary Study

Abstract

Aim: To explore the differential characteristics in sociodemographic variables, severity of consumption, psychopathological symptomatology, life maladjustment, trauma characteristics, and post-traumatic stress symptomatology between women and men who seek treatment for substance use disorder (SUD) and have experienced lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse. Method: The sample consisted of 26 women and 31 men who had experienced physical/sexual abuse and sought treatment for SUD. Results: Women had been victims of sexual abuse in a significantly higher percentage than men. Women presented a significantly higher frequency of revictimization to another traumatic event and a significantly higher presence of avoidance symptoms than men. Conclusions: This study supports the existence of a more severe profile in women than in men with SUD who have experienced lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse. Consequently, gender-related trauma-informed practice in SUD treatment programmes should be promoted. More research in this field is needed, as this is a preliminary study.

Alternate abstract:

Objetivo: Explorar las diferencias de género en distintas variables (sociodemográficas, gravedad del consumo, sintomatología psicopatológica, inadaptación a la vida cotidiana, características del trauma y sintomatología de estrés postraumático) en pacientes que acuden a tratamiento por trastorno por consumo de sustancias (TCS) y han sufrido abuso físico y/o sexual. Método: La muestra estuvo compuesta por 26 mujeres y 31 hombres que habían sufrido abuso físico y/o sexual y buscaban tratamiento para TCS. Resultados: Las mujeres habían sido víctimas de abuso sexual en un porcentaje significativamente mayor que los hombres. Además presentaban una frecuencia significativamente mayor de revictimización a otro evento traumático y una presencia significativamente mayor de síntomas de evitación que los hombres. Conclusiones: El estudio confirma la existencia de un perfil más grave en las mujeres que en los hombres con TCS que han sufrido abuso físico y/o sexual a lo largo de la vida. En consecuencia, se debe promover la atención informada sobre el trauma con perspectiva de género en los programas de tratamiento del TCS. Dada la naturaleza preliminar de este estudio, se necesita más investigación en este campo.

Introduction

The development of post-traumatic symptomatology is one of the main consequences of suffering physical and/or sexual abuse (Campbell et al., 2016;Olaya et al., 2015). Gender differences in suffering different types of potentially traumatic events and in the derived consequences have been well established (Armstrong et al., 2018;Christiansen & Hansen, 2015;Mitra et al., 2021;Tolin & Foa, 2006). Overall, men suffer a higher number of lifetime traumatic events than women. Moreover, the types of traumatic events experienced by men vary. Specifically, men present a higher proportion of accidents, robberies, and war consequences than women, whereas women are victims of sexual abuse and childhood abuse in a higher proportion than men (Tolin & Foa, 2006). On the other hand, women present greater psychopathological consequences than men, such as depression, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD;Armstrong et al., 2018).

There is evidence for a link between having experienced any type of abuse and the development of problematic substance use (Afifi et al., 2012;Bailey et al., 2020;Haller & Chassin, 2014;Mesa-Gresa & Moya-Albiol, 2011;Proctor et al., 2017). This relationship has been traditionally explained by self-medication theory, which proposes the use of substances as a coping strategy to deal with the consequences of traumatic experiences (Khantzian, 1997). Furthermore, 18% to 53.7% of patients who seek treatment for substance use disorder (SUD) present a history of physical abuse, and 9.2% to 22.7% have experienced lifetime sexual abuse (Daigre et al., 2015; Fernández-Montalvo et al., 2015;Grundmann et al., 2018;Potthast et al., 2014).

Patients in SUD treatment programmes who have experienced histories of physical and/or sexual abuse present a more severe psychopathological profile (Daigre et al., 2015;Fernández-Montalvo et al., 2015;Haro et al., 2021;Lotzin, et al., 2016;Zaorska & Jakubczyk, 2019) and higher rates of treatment dropout (Brems et al., 2004;Daigre et al., 2015;Fernández-Montalvo et al., 2017) than those without histories of abuse. In addition, post-traumatic stress symptomatology seems to play an important role in SUD development and severity (Kok et al., 2015;Müller et al., 2015). This relationship has been widely studied in women (Bailey et al., 2019;Min et al., 2007;Smith et al., 2014;Sullivan et al., 2009;Ullman et al., 2005;Ullman et al., 2009;Ullman et al., 2013;Ullman & Sigurvinsdottir, 2015;Vaszari et al., 2011). However, gender differences in patients with SUD and lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse remain little explored given the scarcity of comparative studies with male samples (Danielson et al., 2009).

Gender differences in the link between having suffered a potentially traumatic event and substance use have been found in the general population. For example, cumulative exposure to a potentially traumatic event has been associated with cannabis use and illicit drug use in women but not in men (Cunradi et al., 2020). Regarding patients in SUD treatment programmes, this differential profile has been studied in veterans (Livingston et al., 2021) and in persons with severe mental illness (Lipschitz et al., 2000;Sharif et al., 2020). Although little is known about gender differences in patients in treatment for SUD who have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse,Ouimette et al. (2000)recommended gender-related trauma-informed practice in SUD-treatments. Nevertheless, this research presented some specific limitations. For example, measure of physical and sexual abuse was based on one-item measures. The present study tries to improve this aspect, using more accurate measures.

Thus, the main objective of this study was to explore the differential characteristics between women and men who seek treatment for SUD and have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse. The variables studied were sociodemographic aspects, substance motivating treatment, severity of consumption, number of previous SUD treatments, psychopathological symptomatology, everyday life maladjustment, type of abuse, trauma characteristics and consequences, post-traumatic stress symptomatology, and diagnosis. In comparison to the study ofOuimette et al. (2000), the trauma-related variables were explored using a more in-depth interview. Based on the few previous studies, the primary hypothesis of this study is that women will present a more severe profile in most of the variables studied and a higher prevalence of sexual abuse than men.

Method

Participants

The initial sample consisted of 496 patients seeking treatment for SUD in the “Proyecto Hombre Navarra and ANTOX" addiction programmes in Navarra, Spain between February 2017 and June 2019. These programs have a cognitive behavioural basis and are geared towards abstinence. Study inclusion criteria were as follows: a) meeting the diagnostic criteria for SUD based on the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013); b) having experienced physical and/or sexual abuse; c) being older than 18 years old; d) receiving SUD treatment; and e) giving consent to participate in the study. The exclusion criteria were a) presenting serious mental illness that made it inadvisable to participate in the study (e.g., psychotic disorders); and b) not having knowledge of the Spanish language. Based on these criteria, 57 patients were selected for the study (11.5% of the initial sample). Of these subjects, 54.4% ( n = 31) were men, and 45.6% ( n = 26) were women. The average age of the final sample was 41.5 years ( SD = 11.8). About half of the participants were single (47.4%, n = 27), had secondary studies (50.9%, n = 29), and were unemployed (56.1%, n = 32). The main substance that motivated treatment was alcohol in 45.1% ( n = 25) of the final sample, followed by cocaine (22.8%, n = 13), poly consumption (21.1%, n = 12), and other substances (12.3%, n = 7) as heroin, cannabis, etc. The remaining patients were excluded for not having experienced lifetime abuse ( n = 439). Two previous studies were done with part of this sample (Haro et al., 2021; López-Goñi et al., 2021).

Measures and Variables

The EuropASI (Kokkevi & Hartgers, 1995; Spanish version byBobes et al., 1996) is the European version of the Addiction Severity Index (ASI;McLellan et al., 1980). This tool assesses the need for treatment in patients with SUD in seven different areas: (a) general medical condition, (b) employment and financial situation, (c) alcohol consumption, (d) use of other drugs, (e) legal problems, (f) family and social relationships, and (g) psychological state; scores ranging from 0 ( no problem ) to 9 ( extreme problems ). Interviewer Severity Rates (ISRs), which are directly related to the severity of consumption (López-Goñi et al., 2012), were used. Moreover, some items of the EuropASI were used to obtain specific information about the presence of psychopathological problems (psychiatric scale: items 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 10A). Thus, the variables derived from the interview considered in this study were: substance motivating treatment, the seven areas of the EuropASI, number of previous SUD treatments, depressive problems, anxiety problems, hallucinations, violence problems, suicidal ideation and attempts, and previous psychopharmacological treatments. For the assessment of lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse, two specific items from the family/social area of the EuropASI were used: 18B (“Has anyone ever physically abused you?") and 18C (“Has anyone ever sexually abused you?"). The short-term test-retest reliabilities of the ASI severity ratings have been reported to be greater than or equal to .92 for all domains inMcLellan et al. (1985).

The Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R) (Derogatis, 1992) is a self-report tool that assesses psychopathological symptoms in the last two weeks. It is composed of 90 items that are answered on a five-point Likert scale, from 0 ( never ) to 4 ( more than seven days ). This tool aims to assess the symptoms of psychological distress. It consists of nine primary symptom dimensions: somatization (e.g., headaches), obsession-compulsion (e.g., unwanted thoughts, words, or ideas that won’t leave your mind), interpersonal sensitivity (e.g., seeing people in a negative way), depression (e.g., feeling low in energy or slowed down), anxiety (e.g., suddenly scared for no reason), hostility (e.g., feeling easily annoyed or irritated), phobic anxiety (e.g., feeling afraid to go out of your house alone), paranoid ideation (e.g., feeling uneasy when people are watching or talking about you), and psychoticism (e.g., the idea that someone else can control your thoughts); and three global indices of severity: the Global Severity Index (GSI), which reflects overall symptom severity; the Positive Symptom Distress Index (PSDI), which indicates symptom intensity; and the Positive Symptom Total (PST), which includes the number of items answered with a score different from 0. In this sample the internal consistency ranges from .70 to .90.

The Maladjustment Scale (Echeburúa et al., 2000) reveals how each patient is currently affected in six different areas of everyday life: labour, social, leisure, partner, family and general (e.g., “because of my current problems, my usual social life has been affected..."). This scale evaluates maladjustment in each area and it ranges from 0 ( nothing ) to 5 ( extremely ) on a six-point Likert scale. The total scale range is 0-30. Higher scores indicate higher levels of maladjustment. In this sample the internal consistency is .94.

The Severity Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale - Revised (EGS-R;Echeburúa et al., 2016) is a Spanish semi structured interview that evaluates the presence of PTSD and the severity of the symptoms. It is based on the diagnostic criteria of the DSM-5. It is composed of two parts: a) exposure to a traumatic event and b) severity and frequency of PTSD symptoms. It consists of 21 items scored from 0 ( nothing/never) to 3 ( extremely/5 or more times a week ) on a four-point Likert scale. The variables evaluated were type of abuse, frequency of the traumatic event, previous treatments, exposure during childhood/adolescence, revictimization, physical sequalae, PTSD symptoms severity, and PTSD diagnosis. In addition, six items valorise the interference of trauma in different daily life areas. In this sample the internal consistency is .91.

Procedure

The ethics committees of the Universidad Pública de Navarra (code: PI-006/16), Proyecto Hombre Navarra (code: PHN2016-01), and ANTOX (code: A2017-01) approved the protocol for this study. All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. All participants signed informed consent forms. Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.

All patients were interviewed by clinical psychologists specialized in the assessment and treatment of addictions and trauma. The assessment of the sample was carried out in two sessions at the beginning of the addiction treatment. Self-reports were completed in the presence and with the support of the interviewers. During the first session, sociodemographic data and physical and/or sexual abuse variables were screened as well as the EuropASI (Kokkevi & Hartgers, 1995; Spanish version byBobes et al., 1996). The procedure to determine the EuropASI scores was the two-step methodology suggested byBobes et al. (2008). In the first step, the scores of each area were calculated based on the interviewer’s judgement considering the patient’s answers. In the second step, once the interview with the patient had finished, the interviewer’s scores were reviewed by the intervention team, blind to the participant’s identity. If a discrepancy was observed, the intervention team discussed it until an agreement was reached.

In the second session, the psychopathological and maladjustment consequences were assessed. An in-depth interview was carried out with patients who reported a history of physical and/or sexual abuse to confirm the traumatic event and evaluate the corresponding variables with the EGS-R (Echeburúa et al., 2016). The same researcher was in charge of these in-depth interviews. For individuals experiencing more than one traumatic event, the event with the most severe consequences on the patient was considered the principal type of abuse. The clinical judgment about the PTSD diagnosis was made considering the scores of the EGS-R (Echeburúa et al., 2016). When a doubt appeared, the researcher team discussed the symptomatology of the patient until reaching an agreement.

Data Analysis

Descriptive analyses were conducted for all variables. Bivariate analyses were performed using χ² tests or Student’s t -tests for independent samples, depending on the nature of the variables analysed. The variance homogeneity was assessed in the case of the Student’s t -tests. Depending on the result of Levene’s test, the corresponding correction was used (Glass & Stanley, 1970). The t -test was used because data presented a random distribution (assessed by Runs test for randomness), and the size of the sample was higher than 40. The statistical analyses were two-sided. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d or Cramer’s V) for the analyses were provided. The interpretation of Cohen’s d was made following the next considerations: d <0.20 (no effect size), 0.2 ≤ d <0.5 (small effect size), 0.5 ≤ d <0.80 (medium effect size) and d ≥ 0.80 (large effect size;Cohen, 1998). The interpretation of Cramer’s V was made according toRea and Parker’s (1992)conventions: V ≤ .20 (small effect), .20.60 (large effect). Statistical power post-hoc was calculated as a function of α = .05, the population effect size, and N . Scores above .80 are considered adequate for accepting the statistically significant ( p <.05) differences. Regarding multivariate analyses, a logistic regression analysis (forward stepwise entry method) was conducted to determine which specific factors were the most important to differentiate between men and women. In this analysis, all the variables were included. Due the preliminary character of the study, the variable entry criterion was set to 0.05, and the variable retention criterion was set to 0.10. The proportion of the variance explained was calculated as Nagelkerke’s R ². Moreover, the Hosmer-Lemeshow test was used to assess the goodness of fit of this model (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2013). A difference of p <.05 was considered significant. Statistical analysis were performed with the SPSS program (25.0) and G*Power 3 software (Faul et al., 2007).

Results

Comparisons of Sociodemographic, Severity of Consumption, and Psychopathological Variables by Gender

There were no gender differences in sociodemographic characteristics (Table 1). Comparisons between men and women in severity of consumption and psychopathological characteristics are presented inTable 2. Statistically significant differences in the substance that motivated treatment were observed (χ² = 6.0, p = .014), with a low effect size. Alcohol was the substance that motivated treatment in 43.9% ( n = 25) of patients: 61.5% ( n = 16) of women and 29% ( n = 9) of men. Regarding addiction severity assessed by the EuropASI, men showed higher scores in drug use ( t = 2.2, p <.033) and legal problem area ( t = 2.6, p <.012) than women, with moderate effect sizes. Moreover, women presented a higher prevalence of previous psychopharmacological treatments than men (χ² = 6.4, p = .014), with a low effect size. Regarding psychopathological variables assessed by the SCL-90-R, men obtained significantly higher scores on the hostility dimension ( t = 3.3, p = .0002), with a large effect size.

Table 1 Comparisons of Sociodemographic Characteristics by Gender

Note. ¹In the χ² analysis of marital status, the categories “separated/divorced" and “widower" have been joined. ²In the χ² analysis of education level, the categories “no studies" and “primary", as well as “secondary" and “university", have been joined. ³In the χ² analysis of employment situation, the categories “unemployed" and “retired" have been joined.

Table 2 Comparisons of the Severity of Consumption and Psychopathological Characteristics by Gender

Note . SCL-90-R = Symptom Checklist; ISR = Interviewer Severity Rate; GSI = Global Severity Index; PSDI = Positive Symptom Distress Index; PST = Positive Symptom Distress.

Comparisons of Trauma-related Variables by Gender

Most patients had been victims of more than one traumatic event ( n = 47, 82.5%) and had experienced the traumatic event during childhood or adolescence ( n = 43, 75.4%), without gender differences. Moreover, 26.3% ( n = 15) of the sample presented a diagnosis of PTSD. The results showed a differential profile in trauma-related variables between men and women (Table 3). Regarding the type of abuse, more women ( n = 20, 76.9%) than men ( n = 5, 16.1%) had experienced at least one event of sexual abuse, with a significant gender difference (χ² = 21.2, p <.001) and a moderate effect size. Most of men had been victims of physical abuse ( n = 26, 83.9%). On the other hand, women presented a higher frequency of revictimization to another traumatic event than men (χ² = 15.0, p <.001), with a moderate effect size, and a higher presence of avoidance symptoms as a consequence of having experienced the traumatic event ( t = 2.1, p <.037), with a moderate effect size.

Regarding violence perpetration against people, men (80.6%, n = 25) presented a higher percentage than women (38.5%, n = 10), which was significantly different (χ² = 10.6, p = .001) with a low effect size.

Table 3 Comparisons of the Characteristics and Consequences of Traumatic Events by Gender

Variables Related to Gender

The logistic regression analysis showed that the three variables that best differentiated women from men were having experienced sexual abuse, alcohol as the substance that motivated treatment, higher scores in depression and lower paranoid ideation scores (SCL-90-R). These three variables explained 79.6% of the variance and correctly classified 87.3% of the patients (Table 4).

Table 4 Variables Related to Gender

Note . SCL-90-R = Symptom Checklist.

Discussion

This study supports the existence of a differential profile between women and men in treatment for SUD who have experienced lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse, similar to previous findings (Lipschitz et al., 2000;Livingston et al., 2021;Sharif et al., 2020). Specifically, as hypothesized, women presented a more severe profile than men regarding trauma characteristics and consequences. This more severe profile in women who have experienced trauma has also been reported in the general population (Cunradi et al., 2020), in people who use drugs (Mitra et al., 2021) and in patients with co-occurring SUD, such as veterans or patients with severe mental illness (Lipschitz et al., 2000;Sharif et al., 2020). The main contribution of this study is that these gender differences have been found in patients who seek treatment for SUD and who have suffered lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse.

With regard to the severity of consumption and psychopathological characteristics, women presented alcohol as the substance that motivated treatment more frequently and more previous psychopharmacological treatments than men. Therefore, women with SUD and lifetime physical and/or sexual abuse seem to seek help for their psychopathological problems more frequently than men (Estancial et al., 2018;Simoni-Wastila, 2000), opposite to what usually happens in the addiction centres, where women face barriers in access to treatment (Taylor, 2010). However, they presented lower drug consumption and legal problems than men. These results obtained in patients with histories of abuse are in line with those found in general patients in SUD treatment (Fernández-Montalvo et al., 2014;Santos-de-Pascual et al., 2020).

Regarding the characteristics and consequences of the traumatic event, women presented a greater presence of sexual abuse and a higher probability of revictimization to another traumatic event than men. In this sense, previous studies have shown that women who present lifetime sexual abuse and substance abuse have a higher probability of revictimization due to the effect of consumption (Filipas & Ullman, 2006;Klanecky et al., 2008;Ullman et al., 2009). Similar results were found in this study.

One of the greatest predictors of chronification of psychopathological traumatic consequences is the use of avoidance coping strategies (Min et al., 2007), such as substance abuse (Shuai et al., 2022) and misuse of psychopharmacological treatments. This relationship has been traditionally explained by self-medication theory. It is one of the main explanations for the relationship between suffering a potentially traumatic event and the development of problematic substance use (Khantzian, 1997). In this study, women showed more severe avoidance symptoms and a higher rate of previous psychopharmacological treatments than men. Substance use could be a maladaptive coping skill related to the traumatic event. These specific characteristics could jeopardize SUD treatment progress in women. In this sense, other adaptative coping strategies should be provided to prevent dropout from SUD treatment (López-Goñi et al., 2021).

From a multivariate perspective, women showed higher presence of lifetime sexual abuse, alcohol as the principal substance that motivated treatment compared with other drugs, higher scores in depression and lower paranoid ideation scores. Thus, the gender perspective is relevant in patients in SUD treatment who have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse.

This study had some limitations. First, the size of the sample was limited. Future studies should replicate this research with larger samples. A larger sample would enable a deeper exploration of gender differences in trauma characteristics and consequences in patients receiving SUD treatment and a greater generalizability of the results. This is especially important in those variables in which a statistical power under .80 has been obtained (drug use and legal problems, symptom avoidance, psychopharmacological treatments). Second, this study included patients from only two treatment centres in Navarra, Spain, which might have introduced a bias that prevents us from generalizing the findings of the study to other contexts. Third, as this investigation was a cross-sectional study, a causal relationship cannot be established between having experienced physical and/or sexual abuse and the development of a substance use disorder.

One strength of this study is that the participants presented two very specific conditions: SUD and lifetime abuse. These specific patients are difficult to find and recruit, especially women. This research fills a gap in scientific knowledge and provides a first step for future research.

In summary, the gender perspective in patients in SUD treatment with lifetime abuse remains a neglected aspect that needs in-depth research. The results of this study provide valuable information to the field. Patients could benefit from integrated treatments that consider both problematic areas (Ouimette et al., 2000;Roberts et al., 2015;Simpson et al., 2017). As the results of this study suggest, this is very relevant for women due to their more severe profile compared to men. Trauma-informed practice in SUD treatment programmes should be promoted (Ouimette et al., 2000). This implies a paradigm shift in the culture of SUD treatment centres. First, it is necessary to recognize the differential profile of this population and its prevalence among SUD patients. And second, to apply specific interventions to address these differences and reduce the risk of revictimization (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014). In conclusion, the inclusion of a gender perspective practice in SUD treatments would benefit women who have suffered lifetime abuse.

References

Afifi, T. O., A Henriksen, C., Asmundson, G. J. G., & Sareen, J. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and substance use disorders among men and women in a nationally representative sample.Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(11), 677-686. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205701105AfifiT. OA HenriksenCAsmundsonG. J. GSareenJ.2012Childhood maltreatment and substance use disorders among men and women in a nationally representative sampleCanadian Journal of Psychiatry571167768610.1177/070674371205701105

American Psychiatric Association. (2013).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders(5th ed.). American Psychiatric Press.American Psychiatric Association2013Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders5th ed.American Psychiatric Press

Armstrong, J. L., Ronzitti, S., Hoff, R. A., & Potenza, M. N. (2018). Gender moderates the relationship between stressful life events and psychopathology: Findings from a national study.Journal of Psychiatric Research, 107,34-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.09.012ArmstrongJ. LRonzittiSHoffR. APotenzaM. N.2018Gender moderates the relationship between stressful life events and psychopathology: Findings from a national studyJournal of Psychiatric Research107344110.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.09.012

Bailey, K., Trevillion, K., & Gilchrist, G. (2019). What works for whom and why: A narrative systematic review of interventions for reducing post-traumatic stress disorder and problematic substance use among women with experiences of interpersonal violence.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 99,88-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2018.12.007BaileyKTrevillionKGilchristG.2019What works for whom and why: A narrative systematic review of interventions for reducing post-traumatic stress disorder and problematic substance use among women with experiences of interpersonal violenceJournal of Substance Abuse Treatment998810310.1016/j.jsat.2018.12.007

Bailey, K., Trevillion, K., & Gilchrist, G. (2020). “We have to put the fire out first before we start rebuilding the house”: practitioners’ experiences of supporting women with histories of substance use, interpersonal abuse and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder.Addiction Research and Theory, 28(4), 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2019.1644323BaileyKTrevillionKGilchristG.2020We have to put the fire out first before we start rebuilding the house”: practitioners’ experiences of supporting women with histories of substance use, interpersonal abuse and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorderAddiction Research and Theory28428929710.1080/16066359.2019.1644323

Bobes, J., Bascarán, M. T., Bobes-Bascarán, M. T., Carballo, J. L., Díaz, E. M., Flórez, G., García-Portilla, M. P., & Sáiz, P. A. (2008).Valoración de la gravedad de la adicción: aplicación a la gestión clínica y monitorización de los tratamientos[Assessment of the severity of addition: application to clinical management and treatment monitoring]. Barcelona: Socidrogalcohol.BobesJBascaránM. TBobes-BascaránM. TCarballoJ. LDíazE. MFlórezGGarcía-PortillaM. PSáizP. A.2008Valoración de la gravedad de la adicción: aplicación a la gestión clínica y monitorización de los tratamientosAssessment of the severity of addition: application to clinical management and treatment monitoringBarcelonaSocidrogalcohol

Bobes, J., Gónzález, M. P., Sáiz, P. A., & Bousoño, M. (1996). Índice europeo de severidad de la adicción: EuropASI. Versión española. [European Severity Index of Addiction: EuropASI. Spanish version].Actas de La IV Reunión Interregional de Psiquiatría,201-218.BobesJGónzálezM. PSáizP. ABousoñoM.1996Índice europeo de severidad de la adicción: EuropASI. Versión españolaActas de La IV Reunión Interregional de Psiquiatría201218

Brems, C., Johnson, M. E., Neal, D., & Freemon, M. (2004). Childhood abuse history and substance use among men and women receiving detoxification services.The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 30(4), 799-821. https://doi.org/10.1081/ADA-200037546BremsCJohnsonM. ENealDFreemonM.2004Childhood abuse history and substance use among men and women receiving detoxification servicesThe American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse30479982110.1081/ADA-200037546

Campbell, J. A., Walker, R. J., & Egede, L. E. (2016). Associations between adverse childhood experiences, high-risk behaviors, and morbidity in adulthood.American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(3), 344-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.022CampbellJ. AWalkerR. JEgedeL. E.2016Associations between adverse childhood experiences, high-risk behaviors, and morbidity in adulthoodAmerican Journal of Preventive Medicine50334435210.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.022

Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015). Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model.European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.26068ChristiansenD. MHansenM.2015Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation modelEuropean Journal of Psychotraumatology6111010.3402/ejpt.v6.26068

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, HillsdaleCohenJ.1988Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciencesLawrence Erlbaum Associates

Cunradi, C. B., Caetano, R., Alter, H. J., & Ponicki, W. R. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences are associated with at-risk drinking, cannabis and illicit drug use in females but not males: an Emergency Department study.The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 46(6), 739-748. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2020.1823989CunradiC. BCaetanoRAlterH. JPonickiW. R.2020Adverse childhood experiences are associated with at-risk drinking, cannabis and illicit drug use in females but not males: an Emergency Department studyThe American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse46673974810.1080/00952990.2020.1823989

Daigre, C., Rodríguez-Cintas, L., Tarifa, N., Rodríguez-Martos, L., Grau-López, L., Berenguer, M., Casas, M., & Roncero, C. (2015). History of sexual, emotional or physical abuse and psychiatric comorbidity in substance-dependent patients.Psychiatry Research, 229(3), 743-749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.08.008DaigreCRodríguez-CintasLTarifaNRodríguez-MartosLGrau-LópezLBerenguerMCasasMRonceroC.2015History of sexual, emotional or physical abuse and psychiatric comorbidity in substance-dependent patientsPsychiatry Research229374374910.1016/j.psychres.2015.08.008

Danielson, C. K., Amstadter, A. B., Dangelmaier, R. E., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2009). Trauma-related risk factors for substance abuse among male versus female young adults.Addictive Behaviors, 34(4), 395-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.11.009DanielsonC. KAmstadterA. BDangelmaierR. EResnickH. SSaundersB. EKilpatrickD. G.2009Trauma-related risk factors for substance abuse among male versus female young adultsAddictive Behaviors34439539910.1016/j.addbeh.2008.11.009

Derogatis, L. R. (1992).The SCL-90-R.Clinical Psychometric Research.DerogatisL. R.1992The SCL-90-R.Clinical Psychometric Research

Echeburúa, E., Amor, P. J., Sarasua, B., Zubizarreta, I., Holgado-Tello, F. P., & Muñoz, J. M. (2016). Escala de Gravedad de Síntomas Revisada (EGS-R) del Trastorno de estrés postraumático según el DSM-5: propiedades psicométricas [Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom Severity Scale-Revised by DSM-5: Psychometric properties].Terapia Psicológica, 34(2), 111-128. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-48082016000200004EcheburúaEAmorP. JSarasuaBZubizarretaIHolgado-TelloF. PMuñozJ. M.2016Escala de Gravedad de Síntomas Revisada (EGS-R) del Trastorno de estrés postraumático según el DSM-5: propiedades psicométricas [Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom Severity Scale-Revised by DSM-5: Psychometric properties]Terapia Psicológica34211112810.4067/S0718-48082016000200004

Echeburúa, E., Corral, P., & Fernández-Montalvo, J. (2000). Escala de Inadaptación (EI): Propiedades psicométricas en contextos clínicos. [Maladjustment Scale: Psychometric properties in clinical contexts].Análisis y Modificación de Conducta, 26(107), 325-340.EcheburúaECorralPFernández-MontalvoJ.2000Escala de Inadaptación (EI): Propiedades psicométricas en contextos clínicos. [Maladjustment Scale: Psychometric properties in clinical contexts]Análisis y Modificación de Conducta26107325340

Estancial, C. S., Soares, R. C., Goldbaum, M., & De Azevedo, M. B. (2018). Psychotropic use patterns: Are there differences between men and women?Plos One, 13(11), Article e0207921. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207921EstancialC. SSoaresR. CGoldbaumMDe AzevedoM. B.2018Psychotropic use patterns: Are there differences between men and women?Plos One1311e020792110.1371/journal.pone.0207921

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007) G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences.Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-91. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146FaulFErdfelderELangA. GBuchnerA.2007G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciencesBehavior Research Methods39217519110.3758/bf03193146

Fernández-Montalvo, J., López-Goñi, J. J., & Arteaga, A. (2015). Psychological, physical, and sexual abuse in addicted patients who undergo treatment.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(8), 1279-1298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514539843Fernández-MontalvoJLópez-GoñiJ. JArteagaA.2015Psychological, physical, and sexual abuse in addicted patients who undergo treatmentJournal of Interpersonal Violence3081279129810.1177/0886260514539843

Fernández-Montalvo, J., López-Goñi, J. J., Arteaga, A., Cacho, R., & Azanza, P. (2017). Therapeutic progression in abused women following a drug-addiction treatment program.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(13), 2046-2056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515591980Fernández-MontalvoJLópez-GoñiJ. JArteagaACachoRAzanzaP.2017Therapeutic progression in abused women following a drug-addiction treatment programJournal of Interpersonal Violence32132046205610.1177/0886260515591980

Fernández-Montalvo, J., López-Goñi, J. J., Azanza, P., & Cacho, R. (2014). Gender differences in drug-addicted patients in a clinical treatment center of Spain.The American Journal on Addictions, 23,399-406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12117.xFernández-MontalvoJLópez-GoñiJ. JAzanzaPCachoR.2014Gender differences in drug-addicted patients in a clinical treatment center of SpainThe American Journal on Addictions2339940610.1111/j.1521-0391.2013.12117.x

Filipas, H. H., & Ullman, S. E. (2006). Child sexual abuse, coping responses, self-blame, posttraumatic stress disorder, and adult sexual revictimization.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 652-672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506286879FilipasH. HUllmanS. E.2006Child sexual abuse, coping responses, self-blame, posttraumatic stress disorder, and adult sexual revictimizationJournal of Interpersonal Violence21565267210.1177/0886260506286879

Glass, G. V., & Stanley, J. C. (1970) Statistical methods in education and psychology. Prentice Hall.GlassG. VStanleyJ. C.1970Statistical methods in education and psychologyPrentice Hall

Grundmann, J., Lincoln, T. M., Lüdecke, D., Bong, S., Schulte, B., Verthein, U., & Schäfer, I. (2018). Traumatic experiences, revictimization and posttraumatic stress disorder in german inpatients treated for alcohol dependence.Substance Use and Misuse, 53(4), 677-685. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1361997GrundmannJLincolnT. MLüdeckeDBongSSchulteBVertheinUSchäferI.2018Traumatic experiences, revictimization and posttraumatic stress disorder in german inpatients treated for alcohol dependenceSubstance Use and Misuse53467768510.1080/10826084.2017.1361997

Haller, M., & Chassin, L. (2014). Risk pathways among traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and alcohol and drug problems: A test of four hypotheses.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(3), 841-851. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035878HallerMChassinL.2014Risk pathways among traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and alcohol and drug problems: A test of four hypothesesPsychology of Addictive Behaviors28384185110.1037/a0035878

Haro, B., López-Goñi, J. J., Fernández-Montalvo, J., & Arteaga, A. (2021). Prevalence and differential profile of patients with substance use disorder who have suffered physical and/or sexual abuse.Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(15-16), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211001463HaroBLópez-GoñiJ. JFernández-MontalvoJArteagaA.2021Prevalence and differential profile of patients with substance use disorder who have suffered physical and/or sexual abuseJournal of Interpersonal Violence3715-1611810.1177/08862605211001463

Hosmer, D. W. & Lemeshow, S. (2013)Applied Logistic Regression.Wiley.HosmerD. W.LemeshowS.2013Applied Logistic RegressionWiley

Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications.Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4(5), 231-244. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229709030550KhantzianE. J.1997The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applicationsHarvard Review of Psychiatry4523124410.3109/10673229709030550

Klanecky, A. K., Harrington, J., & McChargue, D. E. (2008). Child sexual abuse, dissociation, and alcohol: Implications of chemical dissociation via blackouts among college women.American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 34(3), 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990802013441KlaneckyA. KHarringtonJMcChargueD. E.2008Child sexual abuse, dissociation, and alcohol: Implications of chemical dissociation via blackouts among college womenAmerican Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse34327728410.1080/00952990802013441

Kok, T., de Haan, H., van der Meer, M., Najavits, L., & de Jong, C. (2015). Assessing traumatic experiences in screening for PTSD in substance use disorder patients: What is the gain in addition to PTSD symptoms?Psychiatry Research, 226(1), 328-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.01.014KokTde HaanHvan der MeerMNajavitsLde JongC.2015Assessing traumatic experiences in screening for PTSD in substance use disorder patients: What is the gain in addition to PTSD symptoms?Psychiatry Research226132833210.1016/j.psychres.2015.01.014

Kokkevi, A., & Hartgers, C. (1995). European adaptation of a multidimensional assessment instrument for drug and alcohol dependence.European Addiction Research, 1(4), 208-210. https://doi.org/10.1159/000259089KokkeviAHartgersC.1995European adaptation of a multidimensional assessment instrument for drug and alcohol dependenceEuropean Addiction Research1420821010.1159/000259089

Lipschitz, D. S., Grilo, C. M., Fehon, D., McGlashan, T. M., & Southwick, S. M. (2000). Gender differences in the associations between posttraumatic stress symptoms and problematic substance use in psychiatric inpatient adolescents.The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188(6), 349-356. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200006000-00005LipschitzD. SGriloC. MFehonDMcGlashanT. MSouthwickS. M.2000Gender differences in the associations between posttraumatic stress symptoms and problematic substance use in psychiatric inpatient adolescentsThe Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease188634935610.1097/00005053-200006000-00005

Livingston, N. A., Lee, D. J., Mahoney, C. T., Farmer, S. L., Cole, T., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2021). Longitudinal assessment of PTSD and illicit drug use among male and female OEF-OIF veterans.Addictive Behaviors, 118, Article 106870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106870LivingstonN. ALeeD. JMahoneyC. TFarmerS. LColeTMarxB. PKeaneT. M.2021Longitudinal assessment of PTSD and illicit drug use among male and female OEF-OIF veteransAddictive Behaviors11810687010.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106870

López-Goñi, J. J., Fernández-Montalvo, J., & Arteaga, A. (2012). Predictive validity of the EuropASI: Clinical diagnosis or composite scoring?Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 42(4), 392-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2011.09.011López-GoñiJ. JFernández-MontalvoJArteagaA.2012Predictive validity of the EuropASI: Clinical diagnosis or composite scoring?Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment42439239910.1016/j.jsat.2011.09.011

López-Goñi, J. J., Haro, B., Fernández-Montalvo, J., & Arteaga, A. (2021). Impact of a trauma intervention on reducing dropout from substance use disorder treatment.Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 13(8), 847-855. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001127López-GoñiJ. JHaroBFernández-MontalvoJArteagaA.2021Impact of a trauma intervention on reducing dropout from substance use disorder treatmentPsychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy13884785510.1037/tra0001127

Lotzin, A., Haupt, L., von Schönfels, J., Wingenfeld, K., & Schäfer, I. (2016). Profiles of childhood trauma in patients with alcohol dependence and their associations with addiction-related problems.Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 40(3), 543-552. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12990LotzinAHauptLvon SchönfelsJWingenfeldKSchäferI.2016Profiles of childhood trauma in patients with alcohol dependence and their associations with addiction-related problemsAlcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research40354355210.1111/acer.12990

McLellan, A., Luborsky, L., Cacciola, J., Griffith, J., Evans, F., Barr, H., & O’Brien, C. (1985). New data from the Addiction Severity Index: Reliability and validity in three centers.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173(7), 412-423. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-198507000-00005McLellanALuborskyLCacciolaJGriffithJEvansFBarrHO’BrienC.1985New data from the Addiction Severity Index: Reliability and validity in three centersJournal of Nervous and Mental Disease173741242310.1097/00005053-198507000-00005

McLellan, A. T., Luborsky, L., Woody, G. E., & O’Brien, C. P. (1980). An improved diagnostic evaluation instrument for substance abuse patients. The Addiction Severity Index.The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 168(1), 26-33. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-198001000-00006McLellanA. TLuborskyLWoodyG. EO’BrienC. P.1980An improved diagnostic evaluation instrument for substance abuse patientsThe Addiction Severity IndexThe Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease1681263310.1097/00005053-198001000-00006

Mesa-Gresa, P., & Moya-Albiol, L. (2011). Neurobiologia del maltrato infantil: el “ciclo de la violencia.”Revista de Neurologia, 52(8), 489-503. https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.5208.2009256Mesa-GresaPMoya-AlbiolL.2011Neurobiologia del maltrato infantil: el “ciclo de la violenciaRevista de Neurologia52848950310.33588/rn.5208.2009256

Min, M., Farkas, K., Minnes, S., & Singer, L. T. (2007). Impact of childhood abuse and neglect on substance abuse and psychological distress in adulthood.Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(5), 833-844. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20250MinMFarkasKMinnesSSingerL. T.2007Impact of childhood abuse and neglect on substance abuse and psychological distress in adulthoodJournal of Traumatic Stress20583384410.1002/jts.20250

Mitra, S., Lee, W., Hayashi, K., Boyd, J., Milloy, M. J., Dong, H., Wood, E., & Kerr, T. (2021). A gender comparative analysis of post-traumatic stress disorder among a community-based cohort of people who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada.Addictive Behaviors, 115, Article 106793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106793MitraSLeeWHayashiKBoydJMilloyM. JDongHWoodEKerrT.2021A gender comparative analysis of post-traumatic stress disorder among a community-based cohort of people who use drugs in Vancouver, CanadaAddictive Behaviors11510679310.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106793

Müller, M., Vandeleur, C., Rodgers, S., Rössler, W., Castelao, E., Preisig, M., & Ajdacic-Gross, V. (2015). Posttraumatic stress avoidance symptoms as mediators in the development of alcohol use disorders after exposure to childhood sexual abuse in a Swiss community sample.Child Abuse and Neglect, 46,8-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.03.006MüllerMVandeleurCRodgersSRösslerWCastelaoEPreisigMAjdacic-GrossV.2015Posttraumatic stress avoidance symptoms as mediators in the development of alcohol use disorders after exposure to childhood sexual abuse in a Swiss community sampleChild Abuse and Neglect4681510.1016/j.chiabu.2015.03.006

Olaya, B., Alonso, J., Atwoli, L., Kessler, R. C., Vilagut, G., & Haro, J. M. (2015). Association between traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder: results from the ESEMeD-Spain study.Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 24(2), 172-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.040OlayaBAlonsoJAtwoliLKesslerR. CVilagutGHaroJ. M.2015Association between traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder: results from the ESEMeD-Spain studyEpidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences24217218310.1016/j.physbeh.2017.03.040

Ouimette, P.C., Kimerling, R., Shaw, J., & Moos, R. H. (2000). Physical and sexual abuse among women and men with substance use disorders.Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 18(3), 7-17. https://doi.org/10.1300/J020v18n03_02OuimetteP.CKimerlingRShawJMoosR. H.2000Physical and sexual abuse among women and men with substance use disordersAlcoholism Treatment Quarterly18371710.1300/J020v18n03_02

Potthast, N., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2014). The contribution of emotional maltreatment to alcohol dependence in a treatment-seeking sample.Addictive Behaviors, 39(5), 949-958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.015PotthastNNeunerFCataniC.2014The contribution of emotional maltreatment to alcohol dependence in a treatment-seeking sampleAddictive Behaviors39594995810.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.015

Proctor, L. J., Lewis, T., Roesch, S., Thompson, R., Litrownik, A. J., English, D., Arria, A. M., Isbell, P., & Dubowitz, H. (2017). Child maltreatment and age of alcohol and marijuana initiation in high-risk youth.Addictive Behaviors, 75, 64-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.06.021ProctorL. JLewisTRoeschSThompsonRLitrownikA. JEnglishDArriaA. MIsbellPDubowitzH.2017Child maltreatment and age of alcohol and marijuana initiation in high-risk youthAddictive Behaviors75646910.1016/j.addbeh.2017.06.021

Rea, L. M., & Parker, R. A. (1992).Designing and conducting survey research.Jossey-Boss.ReaL. MParkerR. A.1992Designing and conducting survey research.Jossey-Boss

Roberts, N. P., Roberts, P. A., Jones, N., & Bisson, J. I. (2015). Psychological interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Clinical Psychology Review, 38,25-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.007RobertsN. PRobertsP. AJonesNBissonJ. I.2015Psychological interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysisClinical Psychology Review38253810.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.007

Santos-de Pascual, A., Saura-Garre, P., & López-Soler, C. (2020). Mental health in people with substance use disorder: differential aspects between men and women.Anales de Psicología, 36(3), 443-450.https://doi.org/110.6018/analesps.36.3.399291Santos-de PascualASaura-GarrePLópez-SolerC.2020Mental health in people with substance use disorder: differential aspects between men and womenAnales de Psicología36344345010.6018/analesps.36.3.399291

Sharif, N., Karasavva, V., & Farrell, S. (2020). One size doesn’t fit all: gender differences in trauma, PTSD, substance use and the SMI-PTSD conceptual model in persons with severe mental illness in assertive community treatment.Psychosis, 13(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2020.1839123SharifNKarasavvaVFarrellS.2020One size doesn’t fit all: gender differences in trauma, PTSD, substance use and the SMI-PTSD conceptual model in persons with severe mental illness in assertive community treatmentPsychosis13211410.1080/17522439.2020.1839123

Shuai, R., Bravo, A. J., Anker, J. J., Kushner, M. G., & Hogarth, L. (2022) The direct effect of drinking to cope on alcohol problems is not mediated by alcohol consumption: Invariance across gender and countries.Addictive Behaviors Reports, 16(1), Article 100469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100469ShuaiRBravoA. JAnkerJ. JKushnerM. GHogarthL.2022The direct effect of drinking to cope on alcohol problems is not mediated by alcohol consumption: Invariance across gender and countriesAddictive Behaviors Reports16110046910046910.1016/j.abrep.2022.100469

Simoni-Wastila, L. (2000). The use of abusable prescription drugs: The role of gender.Journal of Women’s Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 9(3), 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1089/152460900318470Simoni-WastilaL.2000The use of abusable prescription drugs: The role of genderJournal of Women’s Health & Gender-Based Medicine9328929710.1089/152460900318470

Simpson, T. L., Lehavot, K., & Petrakis, I. L. (2017). No wrong doors: Findings from a critical review of behavioral randomized clinical trials for individuals with co-occurring alcohol/drug problems and posttraumatic stress disorder.Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 41(4), 681-702. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.13325SimpsonT. LLehavotKPetrakisI. L.2017No wrong doors: Findings from a critical review of behavioral randomized clinical trials for individuals with co-occurring alcohol/drug problems and posttraumatic stress disorderAlcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research41468170210.1111/acer.13325

Smith, K. Z., Smith, P. H., & Grekin, E. R. (2014). Childhood sexual abuse, distress, and alcohol-related problems: Moderation by drinking to cope.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28(2), 532-537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035381SmithK. ZSmithP. HGrekinE. R.2014Childhood sexual abuse, distress, and alcohol-related problems: Moderation by drinking to copePsychology of Addictive Behaviors28253253710.1037/a0035381

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014).SAMHSA’s Concept of trauma and guidance for a tauma-informe approach(HHS Publication No. SMA 14-4884). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma14-4884.pdfSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration2014SAMHSA’s Concept of trauma and guidance for a tauma-informe approachHHS Publication No. SMA 14-4884U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Healthhttps://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma14-4884.pdf

Sullivan, T. P., Cavanaugh, C. E., & Buckner, J. D. (2009). Testing posttraumatic stress as a mediator of physical, sexual, and psychological intimate partner violence and substance problems among women.Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(6), 575-584. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtsSullivanT. PCavanaughC. EBucknerJ. D.2009Testing posttraumatic stress as a mediator of physical, sexual, and psychological intimate partner violence and substance problems among womenJournal of Traumatic Stress22657558410.1002/jts

Taylor, O. D. (2010). Barriers to treatment for women with substance use disorders.Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 20(3), 393-409. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911351003673310TaylorO. D.2010Barriers to treatment for women with substance use disordersJournal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment20339340910.1080/10911351003673310

Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research.Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 959-992. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959TolinD. FFoaE. B.2006Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of researchPsychological Bulletin132695999210.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959

Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2005). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder and problem drinking in sexual assault survivors.Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66(5), 610-619. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2005.66.610UllmanS. EFilipasH. HTownsendS. MStarzynskiL. L.2005Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder and problem drinking in sexual assault survivorsJournal of Studies on Alcohol66561061910.15288/jsa.2005.66.610

Ullman, S. E., Najdowski, C. J., & Filipas, H. H. (2009). Child sexual abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance use: Predictors of revictimization in adult sexual assault survivors.Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 18(4), 367-385. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538710903035263UllmanS. ENajdowskiC. JFilipasH. H.2009Child sexual abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance use: Predictors of revictimization in adult sexual assault survivorsJournal of Child Sexual Abuse18436738510.1080/10538710903035263

Ullman, S. E., Relyea, M., Peter-Hagene, L., & Vasquez, A. L. (2013). Trauma histories, substance use coping, PTSD, and problem substance use among sexual assault victims.Addictive Behaviors, 38(6), 2219-2223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.027UllmanS. ERelyeaMPeter-HageneLVasquezA. L.2013Trauma histories, substance use coping, PTSD, and problem substance use among sexual assault victimsAddictive Behaviors3862219222310.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.027

Ullman, S. E., & Sigurvinsdottir, R. (2015). Intimate partner violence and drinking among victims of adult sexual assault.Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 24(2), 117-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.996312UllmanS. ESigurvinsdottirR.2015Intimate partner violence and drinking among victims of adult sexual assaultJournal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma24211713010.1080/10926771.2015.996312

Vaszari, J. M., Bradford, S., Callahan O’Leary, C., Ben Abdallah, A., & Cottler, L. B. (2011). Risk factors for suicidal ideation in a population of community-recruited female cocaine users.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(3), 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.07.003VaszariJ. MBradfordSCallahan O’LearyCBen AbdallahACottlerL. B.2011Risk factors for suicidal ideation in a population of community-recruited female cocaine usersComprehensive Psychiatry52323824610.1016/j.comppsych.2010.07.003

Zaorska, J., & Jakubczyk, A. (2019). The prevalence and significance of childhood trauma in alcohol-dependent patients.Alcoholism & Drug Addiction, 32(2), 132-152. https://doi.org/10.5114/ain.2019.87628ZaorskaJJakubczykA.2019The prevalence and significance of childhood trauma in alcohol-dependent patientsAlcoholism & Drug Addiction32213215210.5114/ain.2019.87628