Content area
A significant number of geological profiles showed thick Quaternary and Neoproterozoic systems in the North China Plain. They also reveal basin structures from the Paleoproterozoic era. These structures extend over 100 km in length and span several kilometers in depth. In this paper, we establish a "two concave and one convex" basin tectonic model based on the latest data from urban active fault detection and basin tectonic patterns identified in North China. Using the finite difference method, we simulate and analyze the effects of their long-period ground shaking. The "vertical model" and "parallel model" display stronger amplification of long-period ground shaking than the regular model unaffected by submerged basin tectonics. The amplification varies across space and different time periods in both models. These suggest that the angle between the tectonic axis of the subduction basin and the rupture direction of the earthquake source may be a key factor in evaluating long-period ground shaking amplification in subduction basin structures. The analysis of spectral ratios indicates that subduction basin tectonics can amplify the peak ground shaking up to three times. The amplification could last for certain periods within a specific epicentral distance range. Such an amplification effect is significant for seismic hazard risk assessment and cannot be overlooked. This study provides a reference for future urban seismic hazard risk analysis in North China.
Introduction
A significant number of strong motion observations and seismic damage investigations have highlighted the broad impact of basins on the extent and distribution of earthquake damage. An important factor contributing to this impact is the presence of weak sedimentary layers in the basin, which leads to noticeable amplification. The seismic wave energy becomes "trapped" in these near-surface weak strata, causing multiple reflections at specific frequencies that superimpose the resonance of seismic amplitude amplification [1]. One notable example is the Mexico M8.1 earthquake in 1985, where seismic ground motion amplitude in Mexico City was five times larger than that in the bedrock due to resonance with soft lacustrine facies sedimentary layers [2]. This resulted in varying degrees of damage to thousands of high-rise buildings, with 210 collapsing. Similar cases of seismic amplification caused by sedimentary layers occurred in the Osaka Basin during the 1995 Osaka-Kobe earthquake [3], the Taipei Basin during the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, and the Weihe Basin during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake [4]. These instances underscore the significant exacerbation of seismic hazards in basin regions.
The seismic amplification effect of basins has attracted extensive attention from scholars both at home and abroad. In recent years, numerical simulations have been employed effectively to study the basin amplification effect, with notable contributions in various regions [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10–11]. The most comprehensive numerical simulation results, particularly those concerning seismic ground motion in the California basin [12], have provided in-depth insights [12]. In China, impactful simulation results have been observed for the Yuxi Basin in Yunnan Province [13], Tianshui Basin in Gansu Province [14], Fuzhou Basin [15], and Beijing Basin [16, 17–18]. However, these numerical simulation outcomes have primarily focused on small basins with a high detection degree of sedimentary tectonics. Some scholars [19, 20–21] have delved into basin amplification effects by establishing theoretical models (two-dimensional and three-dimensional) and analyzing the influence of strong ground motion in basins with seismic rupture dip angles, coupled with actual detection data [22]. Nevertheless, their research has predominantly concentrated on the amplification effect of shallow loose sedimentary layers.
North China is the region with the strongest seismic activity in eastern China. Throughout its history, many large earthquakes have occurred in this area and caused a large number of casualties and losses [23]. Geologically, numerous fault basins were developed in the Paleogene, forming the typical basin and range tectonics. In the Neogene, these basins collectively sank, superimposing on the existing Paleogene basin and range tectonics and forming a unified large depressed basin [24]. Based on extensive geophysical exploration data, the North China Plain exhibits a flat topography, with 1 to 2 km of Quaternary and Neogene formations in the shallow part. The strata undulation is gradual, contrasting with the sharply undulating Paleogene layers. The tectonic manifestation is a basin tectonic association with a depth of several kilometers and a length of nearly one hundred kilometers (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 1
Division of Cenozoic basin structural units in the North China Basin [27] (Jiafu Qi et al. 2010)
Located in the northern part of North China, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban cluster has experienced unprecedented expansion in urban size and population in recent decades. This growth occurred in an earthquake-prone zone, where the distribution of ultra-tall, ultra-long, and long-span structures in the cities is sensitive to long-period seismic ground motion. Some scholars [16] have focused on the earthquake disaster risk potentially arising from the long-period amplification of thick sedimentary layers in the North China Basin. They proposed an empirical estimation model for the amplification coefficient of thick sedimentary layers. However, there is no reported study on the possible amplification effect of long-period seismic ground motion from latent basin tectonics. Understanding whether and to what extent this type of latent basin tectonics or association deep underground affects long-period seismic ground motion is crucial for earthquake disaster risk assessment in large cities and urban earthquake prevention and disaster reduction planning. This paper establishes an analogy-based model for basin tectonic association using the results of urban active fault detection and the tectonic association of sedimentary basins revealed by geophysical exploration profiles in North China. It analyzes the effect of basin tectonics on long-period seismic ground motion using the finite difference method to gain new insights into the amplifying effect of such latent basin associations.
Method and Model
Method
The numerical simulation of seismic wave fields involves synthesizing seismic ground motion records by studying the propagation law of seismic waves in the underground medium through theoretical calculations [25]. The finite difference method can simulate the propagation process of seismic waves and various complex effects in any internally complex medium. It facilitates the simulation calculation of the finite fault rupture process in the study of strong ground motion, representing a mature method in the quantitative simulation of strong ground motion and seismic hazard prediction research [26]. In this study, we employed the finite difference calculation program (FD3Dtopo software package) for simulation. The program utilizes the collocated grid with a high-precision format of DRP/optMacCormack to solve the first-order velocity equation set of stress. This allows the simulation of the propagation of seismic waves stimulated by complex fault kinematic rupture processes in a three-dimensional arbitrary inhomogeneous medium containing undulating terrain [26]. The simulation accuracy can reach spatial fourth order and temporal second order.
Underground Structure Model
The medium model of the underground structure is one of the key links of numerical simulation. Sedimentary layers have been widely developed in the North China Plain, as revealed by numerous geophysical exploration profiles [27, 28, 29, 30–31]. These layers exhibit clear stratification, roughly categorized into three strata—Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary—from deep to shallow based on differences in stratigraphic physical properties and geological ages. In contrast, the lateral undulation of Neogene and Quaternary layers is relatively mild, whereas the Paleogene displays pronounced lateral undulation, forming evident basin and range tectonics. This indicates the presence of numerous latent basin tectonics beneath the North China Plain, with some sag areas reaching thicknesses of thousands of meters, as seen in Wuqing sag and Baxian sag. In uplift areas, the Paleogene is absent, and the Neogene directly overlays older strata, as observed in Cangxian uplift and Niutuo town uplift. The typical geophysical exploration profile is illustrated in Fig. 2.
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Fig. 2
Typical artificial seismic profile in North China Plain [28] (Quanyun Miao et al. 2019)
Combined with the latest sedimentary structure detection data and with a focus on analyzing the influence of long-period seismic ground motion in large-scale basins, this simulation establishes an underground structure model. The model uses the "flat layer + basin tectonic association" analogy in the depth direction, with dimensions of 320 km × 320 km × 40 km. Tectonism is applied to the flat layer structure, referencing a typical geophysical profile. The model adopts the HBCrust1.0 model for the stratified interface under the basin, developed with high accuracy based on decades of deep seismic reflection and other data in North China [32]. Additionally, defining bedrock at the basin’s bottom is crucial. The constant velocity profile is used, with a shear wave velocity of 2400 m/s [33]. Medium parameters are derived from the latest shallow artificial seismic exploration data and other research results [34, 35, 36–37]. The medium quality factor is based on the research results of Fan Jichang [38] and Wang Suyun [39, 40], as shown in Table 1. The model’s velocity structure is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Table 1. Physical parameters of the model
Strata | Boundary | Vp (m/s) | Vs (m/s) | Rho (g/cm3) | Q |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quaternary | Top | 1400 | 500 | 2050 | 100 |
Bottom | 1950 | 950 | 2450 | 140 | |
Neogene | Top | 2100 | 1020 | 2450 | 150 |
Bottom | 2800 | 1280 | 2730 | 200 | |
Paleogene | Top | 3000 | 1400 | 2730 | 210 |
Bottom | 4150 | 2400 | 2730 | 380 | |
Upper crust | Basement | 4500 | 2400 | 2730 | 380 |
Conrad | 6100 | 3600 | 2890 | 500 | |
Lower crust | Top | 6400 | 3700 | 3000 | 490 |
Moho | 6900 | 3900 | 3000 | 490 | |
Upper mantle | Top | 8000 | 4300 | 3340 | 600 |
Vp for the compression wave velocity, Vs for the shear wave velocity speed, and Q denotes Quaternary
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Fig. 3
Speed structure of the model [32]
(modified from Yonghong Duan et al. 2016)
Seismic Source Model
The establishment of a finite fault seismic source model is the fundamental and key step in numerical simulation for the influence field value of strong ground motion [41]. The North China Massif stands out as one of the regions with the most significant seismic activity in mainland China. According to the statistical regression results by Li Tieming [42] on the fault parameters of 49 strong earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.5 and above in the region, it is revealed that the seismic source is primarily located in the depth range of 10–25 km in the crust. Moreover, most of the seismogenic faults are characterized as positive strike-slip faults with dip angles exceeding 80 degrees.
The Ji Yun River fault is an important northwest-trending fault in the middle part of the Zhangjiakou-Bohai fault zone in North China. It was previously believed to be a deep and extensive dislocation fault at the Mohorovicic discontinuity, serving as a boundary fault between the North China Basin and the Yanshan Mountain fault block uplift [43, 44]. This fault was also considered to be the seismogenic tectonics of the Ninghe M6.9 earthquake. However, recent detection results show that although the Ji Yun River fault is merely a sedimentary superficial fault that faults the basement reflector [34], there are signs of high-angle faults in the bottom of upper crust and lower crust beneath it. Shallow artificial seismic exploration structures indicate that the latent depth of the upper fault point has reached 30 m, categorizing it as a late Pleistocene fault with an upper magnitude capable of reaching M7 [35]. In their earthquake seismogenic model for North China, Zhang et al. [45] summarized that some of the seismogenic faults occur as surface faults within the surface non-detachment structure layer, but are, in fact, shearing dislocations caused by high-angle deep faults in the lower part of upper crust and middle crust. Consequently, the seismic source model is set as a normal fault with a steep dip angle and a strike-slip component. The upper limit of magnitude, dip angle, and other parameters are primarily based on the latest detection results of the Ji Yun River fault. The details are as follows:
(a) The seismic source fault rupture model was set as a rectangle of 25 km × 25 km, considering the fault scale and geometric characteristics of the Ji Yun River fault. (b) The seismic source depth was set at 15 km, referring to the seismic source depth of the Ninghe M6.9 earthquake and the dominant seismic source depth of small earthquakes in North China [46]. (c) Two obstacles of different sizes were set in accordance with Somerville's [47] principle, with an average dislocation quantity more than twice that of the background dislocation. The central points of the obstacles were located at the positions (7,13) and (18,14) on the fault plane. (d) The initial rupture point is usually below the barrier, according to the research results of Zhang Yong [48]. Therefore, the initial rupture point is set at the position (14,9) on the fault plane below barrier No. 1. (e) The average rupture velocity of the seismic source is set to be 0.8 times the shear wave velocity, with the rupture spreading outward in concentric circles. Research on the time process of rupture from the seismic source [49] shows that the barrier does not break until the medium surrounding the barrier is broken to a certain extent. Therefore, the rupture of the barrier is set to be somewhat delayed compared to that of the surrounding medium. During the rupture process, the rupture time of the barrier is treated with certain deferred processing, with the overall seismic source rupture process lasting about 5 s. The average dislocation distribution, initial rupture point position, and rupture time function of the seismic source rupture are shown in Fig. 4, and the main parameters set for the seismic source are shown in Table 2.
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Fig. 4
Distribution of source dislocation and rupture time. a Average dislocation distribution of source rupture. b Time function of the source rupture
Table 2. Source model parameters of the set earthquake
Parameters | Value |
|---|---|
Magnitude (Mw) | 6.7 |
Depth of seismic source (km) | 15 |
Fault slip angle (°) | −15 |
Fault dip angle (°) | 85 |
Fault rupture size (length km × width km) | 25 × 25 |
Seismic moment (N m) | 1.28e19 |
Average sliding volume of concave and convex body (m) | 1.75 |
Percentage share of concave and convex body area (%) | 25 |
Approximate area of the bump (km along the fault strike × km along the fault tendency) | 2 × 3, 7 × 4 |
Amplification Effect of Paleogene Basin Tectonic Association
Establishment of Basin Tectonic Association Model
As mentioned above, the " flat layer + basin tectonic association" model is established in depth based on the stratigraphic characteristics of the North China Plain. Multiple geophysical exploration profiles are referenced on the plane to conform to the analogical features as much as possible. The model of "one convex in the middle of two concaves" is adopted, resembling the Paleogene basin and range tectonics such as "Langgu basin—Niutu Town bulge—Ba County Basin." This model is configured with two basin tectonics, one deep and one shallow, resembling a size of 160 km × 40 km. The depths are set at 2 km and 4 km, respectively, with a bulge in the middle that aligns with the flat sedimentary layer. The model is illustrated in Fig. 5.
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Fig. 5
Parallel and vertical tectonic assemblage models for the Lang-Ba basin
According to existing studies, the North China Plain is primarily influenced by a pair of conjugate faults: the east Tangshan—Cixian fault zone in the northeast and the west Zhangjiakou-Bohai fault zone in the northwest. The east faults in the northeast are mostly consistent with the long axis direction of each Paleogene basin, while the west faults in the northwest are perpendicular to it. Therefore, the simulation mainly considers two conditions: parallel and vertical basin tectonic lines and rupture directions, leading to the creation of the corresponding "parallel model" and "vertical model." On the basis of the existing detection data and isothickness data, the Quaternary and Neogene layers inside and outside the basin are set at 300 m and 1000 m, respectively, and the Paleogene outside the basin is set to 1700 m. The thickness of the Paleogene inside the basin increases with the deepening of the basin. Additionally, an average stratification model of sedimentary layers (hereinafter referred to as the "Average Model") was simulated and calculated for the convenience of subsequent analysis. The parameter settings for the basin model and average model are as shown in Table 1.
Influence of Long-Period Seismic Ground Motion on Paleogene Basin Association
In this simulation, the total number of 3D finite difference grids is 3960 × 3960 × 410, with the grid step spacing of 83 m. The simulation adopted the Cerjan [50] exponential attenuation absorption layer with an absorption layer width of 20 and an attenuation coefficient of 0.05. This paper specifically analyzes seismic ground motion with periods above 3 s. The influence of latent basin tectonic association is examined from two perspectives: peak ground velocity (PGV) and long-period response spectrum.
Distribution Characteristics of PGV
Peak ground velocity (PGV) is an important parameter reflecting long-period seismic ground motion. Compared with the horizontal flat sedimentary basin-free tectonics, it is crucial to identify regions within the basin tectonic associate with a stronger amplification effect. The PGV distribution for different models is shown in Fig. 6. The "average model" generates high PGV value areas near the epicenter at 90 km, 160 km, and 230 km, respectively. Compared with the "average model," the "vertical model" exhibits the following characteristics: (1) significant attenuation of the PGV high-value area behind the basin tectonics corresponding to the "average model" at the 230 km position, indicating the blocking effect of the basin tectonics on PGV; (2) the PGV high-value area near 160 km is evidently affected by the basin tectonics, extending to both ends along the long axis of the basin tectonics, and a certain width of the high-value area develops on the off-source side of the basin. For the "parallel model," the observations include: (1) directional changes in the distribution of PGV in the high-value area due to basin tectonics, with the PGV distribution in the "average model" aligning with the expansion direction of the seismic wave array; however, the distribution of the PGV high-value area is notably "depressed" in the basin, consistent with the direction of the long axis of the basin tectonics. Similarly, the high-value area corresponding to the "average model" at the 230 km position attenuated significantly; (2) the PGV high-value area near the 90 km position for the "average model" is significantly enhanced by the influence of basin tectonics, showing obvious amplification.
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Fig. 6
PGV distributions for the average, vertical, and parallel models
Figure 7 presents the PGV amplification ratio chart with or without basin tectonics. As illustrated, the most intense position for PGV amplification in the "vertical model" (near the epicenter at 140 km) is located in the second basin, with the maximum amplification factor exceeding 2.5. In addition, strong amplification is evident on the off-source side end of the second basin. For the "parallel model," the most intense position for PGV amplification is located inside the basin opposite the seismic source and at the edge of the off-source end. Strong magnification also occurs in the outer part of the other basin, revealing an obvious basin edge effect.
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Fig. 7
PGV amplification for the parallel (a) and vertical (b) models
Long-Period Seismic Ground Motion Response Spectral Ratio
Spatial Distribution
Spectral ratio analysis of the response spectrum for the basin tectonic association model and the “average model” was carried out, as shown in Fig. 8. For the "vertical model," as depicted in Fig. 8a, the high-value area of the spectral ratio is distributed in an arc-band pattern, consistent with the shape of seismic wavefront and the direction of the long axis for basin tectonics. This distribution is concentrated in the interior of the distal basin and scattered at the end. The amplification effect of the proximal basin is not obvious, and the spectral ratio varies significantly for different periods. Compared with other periods, the amplifying effect of the distal basin on periods 3, 5, 8, and 9 s is more pronounced, especially the amplifying effect on the periods 3 and 9 s is more than 120%.
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Fig. 8
Spectral ratio distribution diagram of basin models compared to the average model. a Spectral ratio coefficient distribution between the parallel and average models; b spectral ratio coefficient distribution between the vertical and average models
For the "parallel model," as demonstrated in Fig. 8b, the distance between the high-value area of spectral ratio and the seismic source is basically the same as that of the "vertical model.” Influenced by basin tectonics, the high-value area of the spectral ratio is distributed in clumps, primarily within the basin opposite the seismic source and at the edge of the off-source end, as well as the edge of the non-opposite basin and the distal-basin end. Particularly, a very strong amplification effect is observed in the middle of the basin opposite the seismic source and at the distal-basin end. The spectrum ratio for different periods reveals variations in the magnification of basin tectonics on the response spectrum. Generally, the magnification is much more significant for the basin opposite the seismic source than for the non-opposite source. Specifically, for the seismic ground motion response spectrum of 6–8-s period, the magnification within the large area inside the basin is close to or exceeds one time.
The preliminary analysis indicates that the amplifying effect of basin tectonics on long-period seismic ground motion cannot be ignored. In comparison, the amplifying effect of basin tectonics under the "vertical model" on long-period seismic ground motion is primarily observed in the interior and at the end of the distal basin. The amplifying effect in the proximal basin is not evident. Conversely, for the "parallel model," the amplifying effect is concentrated inside the basin opposite the seismic source. In terms of the spectrum distribution pattern, the amplifying effect corresponding to the parallel model is more concentrated and significant. From the perspective of risk assessment, the basin tectonics opposite to the epicenter in the "parallel model" exhibit a more pronounced amplification effect, making the risk in this scenario more deserving of attention.
Typical Spectral Ratio Curve
In order to further analyze the amplifying effect of basin tectonics, the long-period response spectrum corresponding to lines passing through the epicenter and basin of different models is selected for comparison. Therefore, the X = 160 km line is chosen with an epicentral distance of Y = 70–206 km (entering the basin range), passing through the center of several strong amplification areas. Figure 9 displays the corresponding spectral ratio curves for the "average model," "vertical model," and "parallel model."
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Fig. 9
Comparison diagram of response spectrum amplification factor curves for different models (X = 160 km, Y = 70–206 km)
The amplifying effect of basin tectonics exhibits phased characteristics at different epicentral distances (Fig. 9). In the epicentral distance range of Y = 70–206 km, the strong amplification section of the "vertical model" is observed at Y = 114–142 km, followed by a noticeable weakening beyond Y > 146 km. The analysis below focuses on the spectral ratio curve of the "parallel model.”
(1) In the epicentral distance range of Y = 70–90 km, the "parallel model" shows strong amplification of long-period ground motion (3–10 s) at this stage, with general amplification exceeding 50% and peaking near 100% at periods of 3.5 s and 7.5 s. (2) In the range of Y = 102–118 km, the spectral ratio curve indicates a small magnification effect for the basin tectonic model. (3) In the range of Y = 118–154 km, the most prominent feature of the spectral ratio curve is the presence of multiple peak points, evolving from a single peak to a double peak and then to multi-peaks with the increase of epicentral distance. The number of peaks increases with the epicentral distance, with amplification rising from nearly 100% at 118 to 300% of 138, before attenuating to 100% at 154. Additionally, the peak points shift toward the direction of long periods. For instance, the peak point corresponding to Y = 122 km is at 4.5 s, shifting to 5 s at Y = 138 km, and nearly 6 s at Y = 154 km. (4) In the range of Y = 158–174 km, the spectral ratio curve shows that the amplification effect at 6–7 s exceeds 100%, being particularly prominent. (5) In the range of Y = 178 ~ 206 km, the spectral ratio curve transforms into an bimodal curve. The peak value around 4 s strengthens after the previous attenuation, exceeding 100% in the amplification effect. Additionally, a more significant peak value emerges in the 8-s period, surpassing 200% in the amplification effect.
The above analysis demonstrates that both the "vertical model" and the "parallel model" exhibit strong amplification of the long-period seismic ground motion compared with the average model influenced by basin-free tectonics. However, the performance of amplification varies notably in space and different periods. This discrepancy indicates that the angle between the basin tectonic line and the seismic source rupture line may be a key factor in assessing tectonic magnification in the basin. From the perspective of understanding earthquake disaster risk, the amplifying effect of latent basin tectonics on long-period seismic ground motion cannot be ignored, with the amplification peak reaching up to three times for certain periods.
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on the latent Paleogene basin tectonic pattern in North China, this paper constructs a basin tectonic association model of "two concaves and one convex" basin for analogy. The finite difference method is adopted to simulate and analyze the influence of basin tectonics in the long-period seismic ground motion, leading to the following conclusions:
The latent Paleogene basin tectonics can significantly change the distribution characteristics of seismic ground motion PGV. In the flat-bedded sedimentary model, PGV distribution centers around the seismic source and extends outward in an arc shape. When the long axis of the basin tectonics aligns with the seismic source rupture direction, the high PGV and strong amplification areas are primarily located in the interior and distal end of the basin. Conversely, when the two are perpendicular, these areas extend to both ends along the long axis of the basin tectonics.
The angle between the tectonic axial line of the latent basin and the seismic source rupture direction is the key factor in assessing the tectonic magnification of long-period seismic ground motion in latent basin tectonics. Both the "vertical model" and the "parallel model" exhibit strong amplification of the long-period seismic ground motion compared with the average model influenced by latent basin-free tectonics, with notable differences in space and periods.
Spectral ratio analysis results show that the seismic amplifying peak value of the latent basin tectonics can reach approximately three times in some periods within a specific epicentral distance range. This amplifying effect cannot be overlooked in earthquake disaster risk assessment.
In this study, a numerical simulation model was constructed based on the detection results of active faults in North China, providing qualitative and quantitative insights into the influence of long-period seismic ground motion in latent basins. Although there may be differences from actual tectonics, this study helps understand the long-period seismic ground motion. For example, considering that the basin tectonic axis in the North China Plain is mainly northeasterly, future assessments of long-period seismic ground motion risk should pay greater attention to the influence of latent northeasterly seismic sources.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank TopEdit (www.topeditsci.com) for its linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript.
Funding
This study was funded by China Science and Nature Foundation (41772123).
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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