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The effective reuse of agricultural waste ashes as a sustainable alternative for cement in blended concrete enables a substantial reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. However, agro-waste ashes are disposed of as waste which causes severe air and land pollution. To encourage the widespread adoption of agricultural waste ashes as alternative cementitious materials, it is required to assess their performance with respect to other well-established alternative by-products. Thus, the present study covers a comparative assessment of the performance of agricultural waste materials, including rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, bamboo leaf ash, and banana leaf ash, with respect to other prospective alternative wastes such as fly ash, slag, metakaolin, silica fume, cement kiln dust, ceramic waste powder, marble waste powder, glass powder, and wood ash, as pozzolans in blended concrete. Besides, this study provides the distribution of these alternative materials across several regions in India and explores their comparative performance in blended concrete. Optimum replacement levels of rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, banana leaf ash, and bamboo leaf ash are 20, 20, 10, and 10%, respectively. Due to the carbon-rich fibrous structure of agricultural waste ashes, the loss of ignition of agricultural waste ashes is higher than the industrial by-products. Moreover, the permeability of agricultural waste ashes based blended concrete is significantly lesser than the control concrete. Incorporating agricultural waste ashes as pozzolans in blended concrete leads to a significant reduction in carbon dioxide emissions offering both economic and environmentally sustainable construction solutions.
Introduction
Concrete is an inevitable part of the construction industry. According to the World Green Building Council, it was reported that 39% of the global carbon footprint was furnished by the construction industry in 2021 [1]. Apparently, it has been observed that cement production has played an important part in contributing to the overall carbon footprint of the construction industry on a global scale [2, 3–4]. The process of calcining limestone to generate clinker, coupled with the following decarbonization process within cement manufacturing plants, constitutes the primary factor contributing to the significant release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the Earth's atmosphere [5]. In addition to carbon dioxide emissions, the cement manufacturing process also releases other detrimental contaminants, including nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide, which are major contributors to the phenomenon of global warming [6]. Therefore, regardless of the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, cement factories are even more responsible for the exhaustion of fossil fuels and natural raw materials [7, 8]. Hence, there is a challenging demand to investigate the potential alternatives for cement in concrete having low embodied carbon, which will facilitate the manufacture of environmentally friendly concrete. The use of pozzolans as an alternative for cement in concrete implies a decline in the quantity of cement used while maintaining the desired characteristics of fresh, hard, and durable concrete.
Due to the rising requirements and advancements in technology, the agricultural sector is experiencing substantial development across the globe. According to Athira et al. [2], the disposal of residual agricultural waste by the way of open incineration results in the release of hazardous effluents into the atmosphere. For instance, agricultural by-products such as rice straw and sugarcane straw are disposed of in the land by open burning which leads to significant air pollution, land pollution, and loss of fertile land. To address this issue, rather than resorting to open burning, agricultural by-products such as rice straw and sugarcane straw can be efficiently burnt in a controlled environment using cogeneration boilers. Moreover, the process of burning the agricultural by-products in cogeneration boilers generates steam which is directed towards the turbines to generate biomass-based electricity. However, the leftover ashes generated from the cogeneration process of agricultural wastes are often dumped in landfills [6, 9]. In addition, the ineffective handling of these waste materials ultimately leads to the contamination of groundwater, diminished soil fertility, and the onset of various respiratory ailments [5]. According to the study conducted by Singh and Siddique [10] and Charitha et al. [5], it has been observed that approximately thirty-four percent of the total biomass burnt in Asia can be attributed to the practice of open field burning of the agricultural by-products. Consequently, it is strongly encouraged to use agricultural by-products as substitutes for cement for the purpose of generating environmentally friendly concrete [11, 12–13]. The inclusion of these leftover materials as pozzolanic additives in mixed concrete can effectively alleviate the environmental consequences by diminishing carbon emissions, greenhouse gas discharge, and waste management issues. However, there are also various methods for producing green concrete by substituting natural fine and coarse aggregates with different alternative waste materials [14, 15–16].
In addition to the production of sustainable concrete through the adoption of Agricultural Waste Ashes (AWAs) as a substitute for cement in concrete, this approach furthermore helps to enhance the performance of the concrete. In the course of the initial hydration process, a chemical reaction occurs between the cement and water, resulting in the formation of Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (CSH) gel and calcium hydroxide. During the advanced phases of the curing process, the silica and alumina present in the pozzolans undergoes a chemical reaction with the calcium hydroxide generated during the primary hydration process, which leads to the generation of secondary CSH gels [17, 18–19]. The secondary hydration process further enhances the strength of the concrete. Moreover, the inclusion of the finer AWAs as pozzolans in concrete leads to an augmented specific surface area and a more compact concrete structure, thereby resulting in improved strength [20]. Additionally, the incorporation of pozzolans in blended concrete refines the pore structure which reduces the permeability of concrete and hence the blended concrete becomes more resistant to chemical attacks [21]. Despite that, an enhancement of strength can essentially be achieved through the incorporation of pozzolanic materials only within specific limits of replacement. According to Chinnu et al. [22], the strength of the material diminishes beyond the optimal replacement levels due to the influence of dilution effects. In addition, it has been observed that a substantial amount of agricultural by-products contain unburnt carbon particles, which have an adverse influence on the effectiveness of these pozzolans when used in concrete [5, 23]. Therefore, it is imperative to employ suitable pre-processing techniques in order to remove the presence of unburnt carbon particles from these pozzolans to enhance their reactivity in concrete [24, 25].
A number of agricultural by-products, including rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, palm oil fuel ash, coconut shell ash, banana leaf ash, elephant grass ash, bamboo leaf ash, palm kernels, cashew nutshell ash, wheat straw ash, groundnut husk ash, and corncob ash, are widely accessible in various parts of the globe [26, 27–28]. The primary barrier to the widespread utilization of these potential pozzolans in concrete comes from a lack of knowledge of the effectiveness of these by-products in blended concrete. In addition, the variability in the chemical composition of these residual ashes is also one of the primary reasons for the acceptance of these waste ashes. The type of soil, fertilisation methods of these plants and the seasonal variations substantially contribute to varying the chemical composition of the residual ashes. More importantly, the viability and practicality of incorporating these pozzolans into concrete are significantly influenced by the lack of data on their practical use and a dearth of standards and specifications. Hence, the global utilization of locally accessible AWAs in large-scale cement production is exceedingly limited. Several other by-products emerging from industrial sectors have achieved widespread recognition as pozzolans in the context of concrete. The extensive recognition and acceptance of these secondary products in the context of concrete can be attributed to the significant research conducted on these pozzolans over the course of several decades [29, 30–31]. Therefore, carrying out a comparative analysis between the performance of agricultural wastes and other regularly used wastes is a feasible approach to enhance the adoption of these pozzolans in concrete.
The primary objective of this study is to analyse the potential of AWAs as pozzolans in blended concrete. The criteria for selecting these AWAs pertain to their lower embodied carbon, local availability, and the ability to be procured in significant quantities across several regions in India. Based on the current research, it is clear that the viable options for pozzolanic materials mostly focus on industrial by-products and agricultural waste ashes due to their readily accessible nature [12]. The substitution of cement with alternative by-products provides an achievable approach for diminishing carbon dioxide emissions as well as addressing issues relating to waste disposal. Hence facilitating the production of blended concrete with the incorporation of various types of pozzolans is environmentally sustainable and cost-effective [32]. The agricultural by-products that were used in this study are Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA), Bamboo leaf ash, and Banana leaf ash, all of which are easily available in the local area. In order to accomplish the widespread acceptance of these AWAs as substitutes for cement in concrete, it is imperative to conduct a comparative analysis of their performance against the commonly utilized alternatives in the Indian context. The additional probable by-products in India that are extensively utilized and regarded for the current analysis encompass Fly ash, Bottom ash, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), Metakaolin, Silica fume, Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), Ceramic waste powder, Marble waste powder, Glass powder, and Wood ash.
The main objective of this review is to deliver an in-depth assessment of the influence of AWAs on the performance of blended concrete, as compared to other probable by-products found in India. The source, production process, and procurement of the waste by-products under consideration are presented. Furthermore, this study presents a simplified representation of the availability of agricultural waste by-products and other prospective alternatives in different parts of India. It aims to offer an in-depth review of the locally accessible supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Furthermore, the findings from prior research point to the optimal quantities at which these pozzolans can be used as replacements for cement in blended concrete, in order to achieve maximum efficiency in terms of qualities such as fresh state and hardened state. The primary focus of this analysis is to assess the extent of reductions in the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions between AWAs and other potential by-products, in relation to the CO2 emissions associated with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Furthermore, this study meticulously presents a comparative analysis of the quantification of CO2 emissions between OPC concrete and blended concrete, both of which are utilized in the construction of a G + 1 (Ground + One Storey) Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) building. The present research presents a scientific analysis of the estimated magnitude of CO2 emission reduction in a building when cement is substituted with varying fractions of pozzolans. The adoption of alternative SCMs in concrete has been accepted as being of great importance from a critical perspective.
Methodology of the review
The main purpose of this review is to minimize the cement consumption by identifying suitable agricultural waste alternatives that can be effectively utilized as a replacement for cement in concrete. This analysis delivers additional evidence addressing the availability of various AWAs across India, with the aim of gaining a better understanding of the locally available pozzolans and for the efficient utilization of AWAs in concrete construction. Moreover, an in-depth review is carried out on the comparison of the performance of AWAs with other viable alternative pozzolans in concrete. Furthermore, it is of the utmost importance to take into account the extent to which the use of SCMs in blended concretes contributes to the reduction of CO2 emissions to the environment. This detail is essential for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the benefits associated with the addition of SCMs in concrete mixtures.
Identification and screening of literature
The present review essentially concentrates on three distinct procedures, namely: (i) the acquisition of relevant literature, (ii) the screening of literature, and (iii) the evaluation of literature. The primary search terms used to conduct the initial literature review encompassed the concepts of 'concrete', 'supplementary cementitious materials', and 'pozzolans'. In the initial phase of the literature-gathering process, a total of about 6000 articles were acquired. The scope of the literature collection was then limited to encompass engineering, material science, construction, and concrete, which led to a reduction of the literature to a total of 3865 sources. The focus of the review predominantly centres on the utilization of AWAs in concrete, specifically examining their supply, processing, material properties, and optimal replacement levels. Consequently, a more refined approach to choosing relevant literature was carried out, resulting in a reduced count of 1274 sources. In addition, articles derived from outdated studies, non-peer-reviewed sources, and items deemed irrelevant were left out, yielding a total of 563 journals. Greater attention was placed on recent research that is pertinent to the present review. The publications underwent additional evaluation in order to address the research questions which were formulated.
Formulation of research questions
The current review targets to address the following research inquiries:
What are the potential alternatives to cement in blended concretes that are both economical and environmentally sustainable?
What impact do various potential SCMs have on the characteristics of blended concrete?
Are AWAs readily accessible throughout India?
Is there an apparent enhancement in the fresh and mechanical characteristics of blended concrete containing AWAs when compared to conventional concrete?
Do prior research studies provide evidence for the optimal replacement level of cement with various SCMs in blended concretes?
What are the necessary paths for future research in order to ensure the widespread acceptance of different AWAs as an effective substitute to cement in blended concretes?
The articles corresponding to the specifically chosen agricultural and industrial waste by-products such as RHA, SCBA, Bamboo leaf ash, Banana leaf ash, Fly ash, Bottom ash, GGBFS, Metakaolin, Silica fume, CKD, Ceramic waste powder, Marble waste powder, Glass powder, and Wood ash were only considered for this review. This ended up with a total of 217 articles being considered. Among the 217 articles, only the papers that complied with the formulated research questions were considered for the review, while the remaining articles were excluded. This resulted in a sample size of 157 articles.
Following a thorough investigation of the existing literature of 157 articles, a careful examination of highly relevant content in each paper was performed meticulously. The studies corresponding to physical, chemical, mineralogical, fresh, and hardened properties of blended concrete were only considered for the review while discarding the other articles. For instance, studies focussing on fly ash-based alkali-activated concrete were rejected at this level of evaluation. This ended up in the decision to choose a sample size of 130 journals for inclusion in the present review as presented in Fig. 1.
Potential alternatives for cement available in India
Agricultural waste alternatives
Rice husk ash
India holds the prominent position as the foremost global producer of rice. The rice husk refers to the outer covering of the rice grains, which is usually separated during the rice processing stage due to its relatively low nutritional content. The combustion process of rice husk in cogeneration boilers can lead to the generation of RHA, as stated by Jittin et al. [7]. According to Shaswat et al. [33], it has been observed that around 0.28 kg of rice husk is produced for every kilogram of rice. However, rice husk is being used as a fuel source for electricity generation due to its significant calorific value, as stated by Kumar et al. [34]. In contrast, a significant quantity of RHA is discarded of in landfills due to the shortage of standard procedures regulating its incorporation into construction materials. RHA possesses a significant quantity of silica, rendering it a suitable SCM for use in concrete.
Sugarcane bagasse ash
SCBA, also known as sugarcane bagasse ash, is a biomass material derived from the sugar industry. India is regarded as a prominent global producer of sugarcane [35]. The leftover sugarcane straw, following the extraction of juice, is fed into the cogeneration boilers. Between the temperature range of nearly 900–1000 °F, an enormous quantity of residual bagasse ash is generated, which is ultimately collected by the utilization of a bag-house filter [6, 36]. It is acknowledged that a ratio of around 3 tonnes of SCBA can be produced for every 10 tonnes of sugarcane [37]. The majority of the collected SCBA normally gets disposed of in landfills, causing environmental degradation. Additionally, SCBA has been recognized as a silica-rich material, which makes it an appropriate option for usage as a pozzolanic additive in concrete [36].
Banana leaf ash
The cultivation of banana plants brings about a significant quantity of waste material being produced. According to estimates, each plant produces approximately 1.35 kg of dry leaf waste. Banana cultivation is carried out on a global scale, encompassing about 5.2 million hectares of land, which leads to an annual production of approximately 10.22 million tonnes of dry banana leaves [38, 39]. The burning of dried leaves generates banana leaf ash, which can serve as an effective substitute for pozzolan in concrete.
Bamboo leaf ash
According to David et al. [40], bamboo is a plentiful and rapidly developing natural resource that exhibits robust growth in tropical and subtropical climates. The most recent estimate is that, about one percent of the total tropical forest area is characterized by the presence of bamboo vegetation. As per a study carried out by Temitope et al. [41], a significant quantity of bamboo, nearly up to 20 million metric tonnes per year, is being utilized across a range of processing industries including agricultural, food, paper, and construction. On the other hand, considerable quantities of leftover bamboo trash are underutilized. According to Odeyemi et al. [42], the controlled calcination procedure performed on bamboo leaves at an average temperature of 1110 °F initiates an increase in its pozzolanic reactivity, transforming it appropriate for utilization as a SCM in concrete.
Currently available potential SCMs from Industrial by-products in India
Fly ash is widely used as a pozzolanic substance in the production of concrete. Annually, India produces approximately 226 million tonnes of fly ash [43]. Nevertheless, 83% of the produced fly ash is utilized, whereas the remaining quantity is disposed of in landfills. In thermal power plants, the process comprises the feeding of pulverized coal into the combustion furnace, where the primary combustible constituents are burned at a temperature of 2700 °F. On the other hand, the non-combustible constituents, such as calcite, quartz, pyrite, clay, gypsum, etc., undergo a process of melting and eventually drift out of the furnace. These fragments undergo a process of solidification, resulting in the formation of glassy spherical particles commonly referred to as "fly ash." The classification of fly ash is reliant upon the particular type of coal utilised during the pulverization procedure, resulting in two distinct categories known as Class C fly ash and Class F fly ash, as specified by the ASTM C618 standard [44]. Class F fly ash is derived from the incineration of bituminous coal, leading to elevated levels of silica and alumina, while exhibiting diminished levels of calcium. In contrast, Class C fly ash is derived from the combustion of lignite, leading to higher calcium concentrations compared to Class F fly ash [45, 46]. Prior studies pointed out that Class C fly ash exhibits more strength growth when compared with Class F fly ash [47, 48]. In coal-thermal power plants, during the pulverisation process, the clay particles along with the non-combustible substances generate coal ash. Fly ash is formed when the finer and lighter ash particles flow out of the furnace. In contrast, the particles that possess larger size and more weight are more likely to be accumulated at the base of the furnace, which leads to the formation of Bottom Ash [49, 50]. In general, the proportion of bottom ash that is generated in the thermal power plant constitutes approximately 15–25% of the overall coal ash output resulting from the pulverization and combustion procedures [51, 52]. According to Navdeep et al. [52], the bottom ash exhibits porosity and possesses coarse, granular morphology with a glassy composition. In general, the diameter of bottom ash ranges from 0.5 to 5 mm. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) is a residual material derived from the steel and iron sectors. In the iron manufacturing process, the furnace is supplemented with the raw material iron oxide, fluxing agents such as limestone or dolomite, and a reducing agent known as coke [53]. At around 2500 °F, the slag rises out of the furnace. The slag is cooled rapidly with high-pressure water jets to form the granulated slag [54]. Then, the slag is subjected to additional drying and is subsequently finely pulverized to produce glassy granular particles that possess the appropriate characteristics for serving as a binder in concrete. Furthermore, slag is subjected to a finer grinding process compared to cement in order to enhance its reactivity [55].
Silica fume, alternatively referred to as micro-silica, is obtained as a result of processes from the silicon and ferrosilicon sectors. At temperatures approximately reaching 3600 °F, a heating process is carried out for heating quartz in conjunction with coal, coke, and wood chips. This treatment results in the reduction of these materials, leading to the production of silicon while SiO2 vapours are left as a byproduct. The vapours undergo oxidation and condensation at reduced temperatures, resulting in the formation of more refined non-crystalline silica fume [56, 57]. The silica fume's SiO2 composition is influenced by its source of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy procurement [57]. The utilization of silica fume as a pozzolanic material is facilitated by the enhanced packing effect of silica fume resulting from the presence of finer particles and the intensified reactivity [58]. Metakaolin is obtained through the transformation of the hydrous aluminium silicate compounds found in kaolin clay. The dehydroxylation process of kaolin take place within the temperature range of approximately 1100–1400 °F. In the course of this process, the extensive strata of silica and alumina undergo fragmentation, resulting in the formation of metakaolin, which exhibits a high degree of amorphousness and reactivity [59, 60]. Metakaolin is characterized by a significant quantity of silica and alumina, rendering it an appealing option for utilization as a pozzolanic substance in concrete applications [61]. Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) is a secondary product that is abundantly present in cement production facilities. In most cases, a significant portion of CKD is brought back into the clinker manufacturing process. Nevertheless, the implementation of this approach may encounter challenges in certain kilns as a result of the raised alkali concentration present in CKD [62, 63]. In contemporary times, these waste materials have been employed in many applications such as soil stabilization, sewage treatment, and cement substitution [64]. The particles of CKD, which are of micron size, consist of particulate matter that is very alkaline. As a result, they have a greater potential for utilization as a substitute for cement [63].
Ceramic products exhibit greater susceptibility to fracture during the manufacturing process and transportation stages, hence leading to a substantial generation of ceramic waste. Ceramic waste materials encompass a wide range of products, such as sanitary items, tiles, red ceramic bricks, and roof tiles [65]. According to Senthamarai et al. [66], the ceramic sector contributes for around 30% of the daily waste generated. Furthermore, ceramic waste materials have been determined to contain potentially dangerous substances such as antimony, vanadium, cadmium, copper, cobalt, lead, manganese, chromium, selenium, and barium. The waste materials that are non-biodegradable are primarily utilized for the purpose of landfilling, which leads to the degradation of soil fertility and the contamination of groundwater [67, 68]. In order to mitigate these negative effects, it is feasible to make use of the ceramic waste by means of crushing and incorporating it into concrete as a partial substitute for cement. Marble is frequently used in the construction and embellishment of architectural structures. Marble trash is produced either at quarry sites or during the processing phase at the companies. Due to the irregularity of their shape, it has been observed that around 30% of the marble produced undergoes as wastage during the process of cutting and shaping [69, 70]. Waste marble is generated in the form of both larger particles and smaller particles. According to Silva et al. [71], it is feasible to utilize large marble fragments as coarse aggregates in concrete. Additionally, the smaller discarded scraps can be utilized as either fine aggregates or substitutes for cement [72].
Waste glass is derived from several sources, including glass bottles, glass containers, shattered windows, lamps, and glass panels after their service life [73]. According to a study conducted by Jiang et al. [19], an estimated quantity of around 200 million tonnes of waste glass, that is non-recyclable, is discarded of in landfills annually. Conversely, the acquisition of smaller glass particles can be achieved through the processes of crushing or grinding waste glass. As waste glass contains a high proportion of amorphous silica, it possesses beneficial characteristics that make it an attractive SCM for incorporation into concrete [32, 74, 75]. Wood ash is an organic substance that is generated as a by-product when wood products such as bark, sawdust, and chips experience combustion. These waste materials are ultimately repurposed as a source of fuel for the purpose of energy generation within the timber industry. While thermal combustion lowers the overall volume of wood waste, it nevertheless generates a significant amount of unutilized wood ash [76]. Past investigation indicates that around 70% of wood ash is disposed of in landfills, while 20% is used as a soil supplement and fertilizer in agricultural practices and the remaining 10% is utilized in the production of construction materials [77, 78] (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 1
Methodology of the review
Effects of AWAs in concrete and their comparison with other SCMs
Physical characteristics of AWAs and the other potential alternatives
The fresh and hardened characteristics of blended concretes are strongly altered by the physical and chemical characteristics of different pozzolans. Furthermore, the quality of the blended concrete is determined by the nature and composition of the pozzolans that are used in the mixture of concrete. The fact that these SCMs are derived from different sources, it is crucial that they be processed using proper processing methods in order to make them suitable for utilization as pozzolans in concrete. The processing methods used for concrete are distinct based on the specific type of pozzolan employed, as depicted in Figs. 2 and 3.
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Fig. 2
Processing adopted for SCBA [79]
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Fig. 3
Processing adopted for Banana leaf ash [38]
In addition, several processing techniques such as screening, grinding, and burning are employed to further improve the reactivity of the pozzolan material utilized in concrete [7]. The presence of significant quantities of reactive silica and reactive alumina in the pozzolanic substance leads to a chemical reaction with the calcium hydroxide generated during the hydration process of cement and water.
The specific gravity of different SCMs adopted in the study is presented in Fig. 4. The workability of concrete is directly influenced by the specific gravity of the pozzolans employed. Previous investigation indicates that the specific gravity of the pozzolanic material is required to be comparable to that of cement. Conversely, it is apparent from Fig. 4 that the specific gravity of each of the SCMs is lower than that of cement (3.15) owing to their porous and lightweight features. Due to the practice of weigh-batching of materials for concrete production, a greater volume of paste is generated as a result of the lower specific gravity of the pozzolan being used compared to that of cement. Furthermore, the presence of unburnt carbon particles in unprocessed AWAs has a detrimental effect on the specific gravity of SCMs employed in concrete [6]. Nevertheless, it was noted that the specific gravity exhibited an increase upon the use of appropriate processing techniques intended for the removal of these unburnt particles [36].
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Fig. 4
Specific Gravity of AWAs and the other potential alternatives [6, 36, 41, 52, 54, 57, 63, 68, 78, 80, 81, 82–83]
The ranges of specific gravity and specific surface area or fineness (m2/kg) for different AWAs available from various literature and the other potential alternatives are represented in Table 1 to understand the comparison in the physical properties of these SCMs. The specific gravity values of various pozzolans fall within the range of 2–3. The AWAs, particularly SCBA and RHA, exhibited the lowest specific gravity among the various alternative cementitious materials considered for incorporation into concrete [6, 36]. The reason for this can be attributed to the significantly porous characteristics of carbon-rich particles found in these pozzolans in comparison with cement [36]. However, it was noticed that the specific gravity of GGBFS and ceramic waste powder exhibited similarity to that of cement. Due to the aforementioned reason, GGBFS is typically pulverized to achieve a level of fineness comparable to cement (220–320 m2/kg), hence serving as a substitute for cement in concrete applications [54].
Table 1. Specific gravity and fineness of different AWAs and potential alternatives
Agricultural waste ash | Specific Gravity | References | Other potential alternatives | Specific Gravity | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RHA | 2–2.3 | [36] | Fly ash | 2.1–3 | [84] |
SCBA | 1.8–2.4 | [6] | Bottom ash | 1.9–3.5 | [52] |
Bamboo leaf ash | 2.2–2.7 | [41] | GGBFS | 2.7–3 | [54] |
Banana leaf ash | 2.6–2.65 | [83] | CKD | 2.6–2.8 | [63] |
Palm oil fuel ash | 2.15–2.45 | [26] | Silica fume | 2.2–2.3 | [57] |
Corn cob ash | 2.2–2.8 | [26] | Metakaolin | 2.4–2.6 | [59] |
Wheat straw ash | 1.85–2.2 | [26] | Ceramic powder | 3–3.2 | [80] |
Coconut shell ash | 1.3–2 | [5] | Marble powder | 2.6–2.7 | [81] |
Rice straw ash | 2.15–2.25 | [5] | Glass powder | 2.4–2.5 | [82] |
Agricultural waste ash | Fineness (m2/kg) | References | Other potential alternatives | Fineness (m2/kg) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RHA | 696 | [36] | Fly ash | 380 | [84] |
SCBA | 514 | [6] | Bottom ash | 600 | [52] |
Banana leaf ash | 593.3 | [83] | GGBFS | 450 | [54] |
Palm oil fuel ash | 670 | [5] | CKD | 460 | [63] |
Corn cob ash | 905 | [5] | Silica fume | 2250 | [57] |
Wheat straw ash | 550 | [5] | Ceramic powder | 554.6 | [80] |
Rice straw ash | 1780 | [5] | Marble powder | 128 | [81] |
The specific surface area is an important parameter that significantly contributes to altering the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. In other words, the specific surface area determines the reactivity of a pozzolan [5]. The pozzolans having higher specific surface area will be more reactive since more surfaces will be available for the reactions to take place [85]. Moreover, the specific surface area becomes higher for the processed agricultural waste ashes rather than the unprocessed ones [36]. The ranges of specific gravity and specific surface area (m2/kg) for the AWAs and the other potential alternatives are represented in Table 1.
The term "loss on ignition" signifies the mass loss experienced by pozzolan materials when subjected to a high temperature. This observation reveals the precise measurement of residual carbonaceous particles within the pozzolanic material. The further improvement of the pozzolan's performance in concrete can be expedited through the implementation of appropriate processing methods, which effectively eradicate unburnt carbon particles from the pozzolan [36]. As per the specifications outlined in ASTM C618 [44], it is recommended that the Loss on Ignition (LOI) value of pozzolans should not exceed 10%. But it is evident that the AWAs possess a higher carbon content that may contribute to higher LOI values. Nevertheless, it can be witnessed from Table 2 that the LOI values remained below a 10% threshold value due to the adoption of controlled burning methodologies on the SCMs including RHA, SCBA, banana leaf ash, and bamboo leaf ash. On the other hand, the LOI values of the pozzolans, such as CKD ranging from 15 to 22% [86] and wood ash ranging from 6 to 31% [78], surpassed the maximum permitted LOI levels according to the specified criteria.
Table 2. Physical and chemical characteristics of AWAs and the potential alternatives
SCM | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | SO3 | Na2O | MgO | LOI | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AWAs | |||||||||
RHA | 85.2 | 0.59 | 0.22 | 0.51 | 0.1 | – | – | 4.91 | [7] |
93.7 | 0.4 | 0.28 | 0.92 | 0.4 | 0.03 | – | 4.4 | [87] | |
SCBA | 68.6 | 3.97 | 3.16 | 7.85 | 1.44 | 1.07 | 1.69 | 5.22 | [88] |
78.49 | 7.27 | 3.84 | 1.28 | 1.5 | 0.69 | 1.28 | – | [89] | |
Banana leaf ash | 43.88 | 5.38 | 4.48 | 19.36 | 1.97 | 0.44 | 8.81 | 5.02 | [83] |
54.93 | 2.14 | 1.18 | 23.65 | 1.13 | 1.30 | 5.50 | – | [38] | |
Bamboo leaf ash | 72.81 | 3.49 | 2.1 | 2.50 | 0.15 | – | 0.17 | 5.71 | [42] |
72.97 | 2.85 | 2.31 | 4.98 | 0.55 | 1.23 | 4.20 | [41] | ||
Other potential alternatives | |||||||||
Fly ash | 53.8 | 26.72 | 5.2 | 5.7 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 2.3 | 1.85 | [90] |
62.84 | 23.94 | 4.74 | 3.43 | 0.77 | 0.4 | 0.97 | 0.73 | [91] | |
Bottom ash | 48.12 | 23.47 | 10.55 | 11.65 | 1.76 | 0.07 | 3.45 | 4.02 | [92] |
55.95 | 16.65 | 9.69 | 4.39 | 0.7 | 0.084 | 5.14 | 4.65 | [93] | |
GGBFS | 34.62 | 11.82 | 2.73 | 37.73 | 1.42 | 0.35 | 9.43 | 1.2 | [94] |
34.4 | 7.4 | 0.94 | 43.2 | 0.83 | 0.57 | 9.3 | – | [95] | |
Silica fume | 96.65 | 0.23 | 0.07 | 0.31 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 2.27 | [96] |
98.48 | 0.40 | 0.03 | 0.44 | 0.42 | 0.25 | 0.4 | 0.9 | [97] | |
Metakaolin | 78.93 | 12.41 | 4.54 | 0.56 | – | 0.19 | 0.08 | 1.6 | [98] |
53.03 | 35.63 | 1.81 | 0.04 | – | – | – | – | [99] | |
CKD | 17.1 | 4.24 | 2.89 | 49.3 | 3.56 | 3.84 | 1.14 | 15.8 | [62] |
15.05 | 6.75 | 2.23 | 43.99 | 6.02 | 0.69 | 1.64 | 21.57 | [86] | |
Ceramic waste powder | 64 | 21 | 6.5 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 2.1 | 0.9 | 1.1 | [80] |
59.9 | 18.8 | 7.64 | 6.47 | 0.31 | 1.41 | 0.72 | 1.16 | [100] | |
Marble waste powder | 28.35 | 0.42 | 9.7 | 40.45 | – | – | 16.25 | – | [101] |
4.99 | 1.09 | 1.09 | 32.23 | 0.02 | 0.63 | 18.94 | – | [81] | |
Glass powder | 71.2 | 1.9 | 0.35 | 10.35 | 0.3 | 13.15 | 2.6 | – | [82] |
70.39 | 2.41 | 0.32 | 6.43 | 0.19 | 16.66 | 2.59 | – | [102] | |
Wood ash | 32.4 | 17.1 | 9.8 | 3.5 | – | 0.9 | 0.7 | 31.6 | [78] |
50.7 | 8.2 | 2.1 | 19.6 | – | 2.1 | 6.5 | 6.7 | [78] | |
Chemical characteristics of AWAs and the other potential alternatives
The mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete are directly affected by the chemical composition of pozzolanic substances. Table 2 provides the chemical composition and LOI values of various SCMs adopted in the study. The materials that take on a prominent role in the pozzolanic processes consist of the oxide forms of silica, alumina, and calcium [6, 7]. The reactivity of pozzolans in concrete is expressed by the percentage of the three components in the SCMs. Previously conducted studies have found that the chemical composition of the SCMs exhibits substantial variability whenever different processing procedures are employed.
The data presented in Table 2 clearly indicates that silica fume had the highest silica content (96–98%) [97], whereas RHA had a little lower silica content (85–94%) [87]. Furthermore, it can be noted that the CKD exhibited the lowest silica level, with values ranging from 15 to 17% [62], whereas the marble waste powder showed a silica content ranging from 5 to 28% [81]. In contrast, a substantial percentage of silica was detected in a number of waste materials, including glass waste powder (70–72%) [82], SCBA (68–79%) [89], bamboo leaf ash (70–72%) [42], metakaolin (53–79%) [98], ceramic waste powder (59–64%) [100], and fly ash (54–62%) [90]. However, it was observed that the silica content of GGBFS, wood ash, and banana leaf ash was found to be less than 50%. The incorporation of alumina in pozzolans during the hydration process brings about the development of calcium-aluminium–silicate-hydrate in concrete, hence enhancing the strength of the material. The fly ash exhibited the highest alumina content, ranging from 24 to 31% [90]. In a comparable manner, the bottom ash had a fairly substantial alumina content, ranging from 17 to 23% [93]. Metakaolin also displayed a notable alumina content, ranging from 12 to 36% [99]. In contrast, the silica fume exhibited the lowest alumina level, ranging from 0.2 to 0.4% [96]. In a similar manner, the alumina content for RHA, marble waste powder, and glass powder ranged from 0.4 to 0.6% [7], 0.4 to 1% [81], and 1.9 to 2.5% [82], respectively. Alternatively, CKD, GGBFS, and marble waste powder possessed a significant amount of CaO (44–50% [62], 34–43% [95], and 32–40% [101], correspondingly), while negligible traces of CaO was observed in silica fume, metakaolin, and RHA. The detected Fe2O3 content in different pozzolans exhibited a range of 0.1–10.5% across all types of SCMs. Furthermore, insignificant proportions of diverse oxide compounds such as sulphur, sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, and others were witnessed in all the pozzolans.
As per the specifications outlined in ASTM C618, it is necessary for a material to possess a minimum composition of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 that together surpasses 70% in order to be designated as a pozzolan [103]. Figure 5 depicts the cumulative proportion of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 in various SCMs. It is evident that all the pozzolans, except for GGBFS, CKD, marble waste powder, wood ash, and banana leaf ash, have fulfilled this particular criterion. Marble waste powder exhibited the lowest percentage composition of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 of 10–35%. On the contrary, the highest percentage composition of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 was observed for silica fume, followed by metakaolin and RHA.
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Fig. 5
Pozzolanic Activity of AWAs and the other potential alternatives [36, 38, 42, 62, 78, 80, 82, 88, 91, 93, 94, 97, 98, 101]
Microstructural characteristics of AWAs and the other potential alternatives
The fresh and hardened properties of blended concretes are considerably impacted by the microstructural characteristics of pozzolans. The utilization of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) for morphological investigation is commonly employed in the examination of pozzolan at a microscopic scale. Figure 6 displays the SEM images of different types of SCMs that have been investigated by previous investigators. It is evident from the figure that the RHA particles exhibit characteristics of being porous, uneven, and angular in shape [104]. These substances are composed of particles that vary in size from micrometers to nanometers, resulting in an increased specific surface area. Moreover, it should be noted that RHA particles possess a cellular structure and consist predominantly of amorphous silica, which offers a significant degree of reactivity. In contrast, the particles of SCBA exhibit variable shapes and consist of fibrous, spherical, prismatic, and dumbbell-shaped structures [37]. On the other hand, the particles derived from bamboo leaf ash are generally fine, flat, uneven, and clustered in nature [41]. The ashes derived from banana leaves exhibit an angular morphology and tend to aggregate together [105].
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Fig. 6
Microstructure of various AWAs and the potential alternatives [37, 39, 41, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114–115]
Conversely, it is noticeable that fly ash constitutes of hollow solid spherical particles with distinct diameters, which are referred to as cenospheres and plerospheres [106]. Cenospheres are characterized as diminutive hollow spheres, whilst plerospheres are distinguished as bigger hollow spheres that enclose and contain the cenospheres inside their structure. In a similar manner, the particles of bottom ash exhibit a spherical morphology, albeit with uneven and porous characteristics [107]. On the other hand, the particles of GGBFS have a quadrilateral shape characterized by angular and irregular features [108]. The particles of silica fume have a consistent spherical form and possess a rough surface texture. These particles possess a small size, measuring fewer than 150 nm [109]. In contrast, the particles of CKD exhibit uneven morphology and possess lesser dimensions compared to those of cement particles [110]. Similarly, metakaolin exhibits an uneven form and possesses a rough surface roughness.
Furthermore, it is apparent that both the ceramic waste powder [111] and the marble waste powder [112] exhibit uneven and angular shapes, accompanied by a smooth surface. The glass powder particles exhibit sharp edges and possess uneven and angular shapes, accompanied by a smooth surface texture [113]. Wood ash particles are characterized by their small size and irregular, flat shape. Nevertheless, the microstructure of these pozzolans exhibits variations due to the variety of processing methods employed for each pozzolan when utilized as a partial substitute for cement in blended concrete mixtures.
Workability of different SCMs based blended concretes
The workability of concrete is an essential consideration in assessing the performance of a concrete mixture in its fresh stage. The incorporation of pozzolanic substances with specific material properties has a tendency to impact the workability of blended concretes. The slump cone test is a frequently used method for examining the workability of concrete. Figure 7 points out the feasibility of utilizing blended concretes that incorporate different SCMs at various doses of replacement, in line with their respective control concrete mixture.
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Fig. 7
Workability of AWAs and other potential alternatives used blended concrete [38, 40, 83, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142–143]
AWAs
A noticeable reduction in the workability was observed while substituting cement with RHA in blended concrete. The relative change in the workability as calculated by Muthadhi et al. [116] was 0.89, 0.84, and 0.79 for the incorporation levels of RHA at 10, 20, and 30%, respectively. In the same way, the workability of the concrete fell by 3.27 percent, 11.95 percent, and 19.26 percent when 10, 20, and 30% of the cement was substituted with RHA [117]. This was in accordance with the highly porous nature of RHA particles as well as the increased surface area owing to their fineness [140, 141]. Additionally, the carbon content in RFA is also found to increase the required water demand, consequently causing a decrease in the workability of RHA based blended concrete [142]. Several researchers employed superplasticizers to achieve the necessary workability in RHA blended concrete. The superplasticiser dosages required were 0.9, 1.1, 1.3, and 1.8% for blended concrete incorporating RHA at 0, 10, 20, and 30%, respectively [143].
On account of the lower specific gravity of SCBA, more volume of paste for the same mass is generated which demands more water [35, 85]. Additionally, owing to the irregular shape and rough surface texture of SCBA particles, friction is created between the SCBA particles which decrease the workability of blended concrete [6]. It is evident that a declined workability was noticed by Kazmi et al. [118] having a slump value of 112, 110, 105, 101, and 96 mm for the replacement of cement with SCBA at 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40%, respectively in agreement with the control concrete. A minimal decline in the workability of SCBA based blended concretes of 0.67, 0.68, 1.3, 2.1, 2.7, and 3.4% was detected at SCBA substitutions at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, correspondingly [119].
Analogous behaviour in the workability of blended concrete incorporating banana leaf ash was stated due to the high water absorption capacity and greater surface area of banana leaf particles compared to cement [83]. This phenomenon resulted in a relative slump value of 0.92, 0.87, and 0.78 for the replacement of cement with banana leaf ash at 5, 10, and 15%, respectively [83]. In addition, a 7.12, 20.05, and 26.66% reduction in the workability of blended concrete was observed for the incorporation of banana leaf ash at 5, 10, and 15%, correspondingly [38]. On the contrary, an improvement in the workability of blended concrete incorporating bamboo leaf ash was witnessed owing to the flat nature of bamboo leaf ash particles that created less friction between the concrete fragments. As a result of this parameter, the relative workability of bamboo leaf ash-based blended concrete was 1.06, 1.1, and 1.18, respectively for the incorporation levels of bamboo leaf ash at 5, 10, and 15% with respect to the control concrete mixture [40].
A comparative performance study in terms of workability was performed between SCBA, fly ash and GGBFS by Minnu et al. [6]. It was observed that SCBA-based blended concrete necessitated more water and had lower consistency compared to fly ash and slag blends. In another study performed by Jittin et al. [36], the performance of SCBA was compared with that of RHA. It was concluded that SCBA-based blended concrete offered better workability than RHA-based blended concrete at the same cement replacement levels.
Other potential alternatives
Previous research investigations have revealed that the incorporation of fly ash as a substitute for cement in blended concretes has been found to boost the workability of the concrete. This increase in workability can be attributed mainly to the decline in the friction between aggregates and cement paste. This can be ascribed to the smooth and spherical characteristics of fly ash particles, which function as small ball bearings. Nevertheless, when fly ash is replaced beyond optimum replacement levels, the powder volume becomes high due to the lower specific gravity of fly ash. Duran et al. [120] witnessed a reduction in the workability of high-volume fly ash-based blended concrete as represented in Fig. 7. Hence, it is evident that more water is required to wet the particles of fly ash in order to maintain the same workability of fly ash blended concrete as that of the control concrete. This phenomenon reduces the workability of fly ash-based blended concrete at higher replacement levels due to a rising volume of powder content.
The workability of concrete dropped at higher replacement levels as a result of the rough surface texture of the bottom ash particles, regardless of their spherical shape. According to Aydin et al. [121], the existence of a granular surface texture on the bottom ash particles in blended concretes led to an escalation in inter-particle friction. Still, the consequence of the granular surface texture on the workability of blended concretes including bottom ash was found to be comparatively minor when lower levels of replacement were taken into account. Aydin et al. [121] indicated a decline in workability of 21.74 and 43.47% after replacing cement with 70 and 100% bottom ash, respectively, compared to the control concrete. On the other hand, incorporating GGBFS in the blended concretes brought about a decline in the workability. Especially, the workability went down by 11.3, 12.35, 14.44, 15.9, 17.06, 18.63, and 19.46% when 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70% of GGBFS was added to the mixture, respectively, compared to the control concrete mixture [122]. The decline in the workability of blended concrete containing GGBFS can be associated with the non-uniform shape of the particles, which ends up in an increase in inter-particle friction.
In comparison, the workability of the blended concrete comprising silica fume was reduced due to the extremely small size of the silica fume particles, leading to an increased water requirement even at lower levels of replacement. In a study, Wong et al. [123] noticed a decrease in workability of 39.4, 69.7, and 78.8% when substituting cement with silica fume at dosages of 5, 10, and 15%, respectively, as compared to the control concrete mixture. In a comparable manner, the substitution of cement with metakaolin resulted in a drop in the workability of the concrete. The poor dispersibility of metakaolin particles in the blended concrete can be attributed to the small particle size of metakaolin, which resulted in the development of a flocculent network structure. According to Norhasri et al. [124], the slump measurements of blended concrete containing metakaolin were recorded at 166, 155, 151, 147, 144, and 141 mm for various levels of cement replacement with metakaolin at 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9% correspondingly.
According to Al-Harthy et al. [130], the workability of CKD-based blended concrete exhibited a linear drop of 11.1, 22.2, 33.3, 44.4, 44.4, and 50% when the cement was replaced with CKD at levels of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, respectively, in comparison to the control concrete. The increased cohesiveness noticed in the blended concrete can be attributed to the existence of the extremely tiny particles of CKD.
The reduction in the workability of the blended concrete containing ceramic waste powder can be explained as a result of multiple factors, including: (i) the inconsistent and uneven morphology of the ceramic waste powder particles, (ii) the enlarged surface area that comes from the fine particle size, and (iii) the higher water absorption capacity of the ceramic waste powder. The study reported by Patel et al. [133] revealed a decrease in the slump value of 68, 66, 63, and 59 mm when the cement was substituted with ceramic waste powder at levels of 0, 10, 20, and 30%, respectively. Furthermore, it was pointed out that the fineness of the waste marble powder resulted in a drop in the workability of the blended concrete. This occurrence resulted in an augmentation of the pozzolan's surface area, which ultimately contributed to a rise in the required quantity of water. Varadharajan et al. [135] reported a drop in the slump value as the percentage of waste marble powder utilized as a replacement for cement increased.
Prior studies have indicated that the substitution of cement with glass powder resulted in the enhancement of workability. The cause of this phenomenon can be connected to various factors, including the non-absorptive properties of waste glass and a lack of cohesiveness between waste glass powder and the cement paste found in concrete [136, 144]. In contrast, a limited number of studies have reported a reduction in the workability resulting from the enhanced specific surface area of waste glass powder, which can be attributed to its tiny particle size. Metwally et al. [137] observed a decline in the slump of 3.36, 15.32, 27, and 45.11% when cement was substituted with glass powder at replacement rates of 5, 10, 15, and 20%, respectively, compared to the control concrete. Wood ash particles are distinguished by their ultra-fine nature and lightweight properties, which confer upon them an increased capability for water absorption. In light of this, Elinwa et al. [138] observed a decrease in the workability of wood ash based blended concrete compared to control concrete. Cheah et al. [139] noticed a similar level of workability in blended concrete when wood ash was used as a replacement for cement. This was achieved by increasing the superplasticizer content in order to retain the desired workability.
Compressive strength of different SCMs based blended concretes
The utilization of various pozzolans as a substitute for cement in concrete imposes an immense effect on the compressive strength of blended concrete. The compressive strength of blended concretes exhibits considerable variation up to the point of optimum replacement levels, primarily affected by the fineness and reactivity of various SCMs that are part of the mix. The excessive incorporation of SCMs in blended concrete has a detrimental impact on its compressive strength. Figure 8 illustrates the relative change in the compressive strength of blended concrete, in which various pozzolans are utilized as substitutes for cement.
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Fig. 8
Compressive strength of AWAs and other potential alternatives used blended concrete [38, 40, 42, 80, 83, 107, 119, 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 130, 134, 136, 137–138, 142, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153–154]
AWAs
The addition of RHA in concrete was seen to result in a surge in compressive strength, with the highest enhancement detected at an incorporation level of 10–20% RHA. The strengthened microstructure of the blended concrete was noted as a result of incorporating finely ground RHA particles and the subsequent development of secondary CSH gel, as reported by Muthadhi et al. [116]. The compressive strength of blended concrete had a drop beyond specified replacement levels, which can be attributed to the dilution effect caused by the presence of RHA. Chopra et al. [145] observed that the incorporation of RHA as a substitute for cement in blended concrete led to a relative compressive strength of 1.02, 1.04, 1.11, 1.12, and 1.07 at substitution levels of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25%, respectively. In a comparable manner, Givi et al. [146] reported that the relative compressive strength of blended concrete containing RHA exhibited values of 1.05, 1.1, 1.03, and 1 for RHA replacement levels of 5, 10, 15, and 20%, respectively, when compared to the control concrete.
Previous investigation has indicated that the incorporation of fine ground SCBA particles in blended concrete has a positive effect on its compressive strength. This can be associated with two main factors: the utilization of SCBA particles with a higher specific surface area, and the increased pozzolanic reaction of these particles, which leads to the formation of secondary CSH gels [6, 147, 155]. Nevertheless, the compressive strength experienced a drop beyond the recommended level of replacement as a result of the dilution effect, as indicated by Bahurudeen et al. [156]. However, the relative compressive strength of SCBA-based blended concrete exhibited varying values of 1.16, 1.19, 1.19, 1.08, 0.94, and 0.83 when the substitution of cement with SCBA was at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, respectively [147]. The research investigation conducted by Praveenkumar et al. [119] noticed that the compressive strength of concrete blended with SCBA exhibited values of 53.86, 56.01, 55.42, 53.64, 50.68, 45.95, and 43.74 MPa for varying levels of SCBA replacement at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, respectively. The decline in compressive strength beyond specific levels of replacement can be attributed to the porous characteristics and the existence of unburnt carbon particles, resulting in an increased LOI of SCBA [36, 157].
The utilization of banana leaf ash as an SCM in blended concrete had the effect of a reduction in the compressive strength of the concrete. In accordance with the findings of Nusrat et al. [83], the incorporation of banana leaf ash as a substitute for cement lead to a reduction in the strength. In particular, the strength dropped by 5.39, 10.63, and 19.81% while the replacement levels were set at 10, 20, and 30%, respectively, compared to the control specimen [83]. The observed consequence can be attributed to the lessened pozzolanic activity of banana leaf ash, which ultimately contributed to a deceleration of secondary reactions in the blended concrete. On the other hand, Jennef et al. [38] witnessed varying levels of compressive strength in blended concrete specimens comprising different proportions of banana leaf ash. Specifically, the compressive strength values were measured at 35, 37, 41, and 36 MPa for concrete with banana leaf ash content of 0, 5, 10, and 15% correspondingly [38]. Despite this, the compressive strength of concrete blended with banana leaf ash exhibited higher values when compared with the control concrete throughout all levels of replacement. In contrast, it was shown that the compressive strength of the blended concrete, which included bamboo leaf ash, exhibited a decrease in comparison to the control concrete throughout all levels of substitution. According to Odeyemi et al. [42], the compressive strength of bamboo leaf ash blended concrete exhibited values of 0.89, 0.71, 0.61, and 0.53 when the cement was substituted with bamboo leaf ash at proportions of 5, 10, 15, and 20%, respectively. David et al. [40] detected a comparable trend in the compressive strength of blended concrete including bamboo leaf ash, with relative strengths of 0.95, 0.98, and 0.85 perceived for inclusion levels of 5, 10, and 15%, respectively. The drop in compressive strength can be attributed to the higher quantity of unburnt carbon particles observed in bamboo leaf ash, which consequently gave rise to an increased level of LOI. In accordance with a study conducted by Temitope et al. [41], the presence of a significant LOI has a detrimental effect on the pozzolanic reactivity of bamboo leaf ash when used in concrete. Thus, it is suggested to improve the characteristics of the pozzolans by means of the adoption of appropriate pre-processing methodologies.
Minnu et al. studied the comparative compressive strength performance between SCBA, sly ash and GGBFS-based blended concretes. It was witnessed that the SCBA blends displayed superior early-age strength, while all three types of blended concrete achieved greater long-term strength than control concrete due to pozzolanic reactions and increased C–S–H formation [6]. In a study performed by Jittin et al., compressive strength performance between both SCBA and RHA blended concrete specimens was compared. The results showed that the compressive strength of blended concrete incorporating SCBA and RHA showed enhanced performance till the optimum replacement levels [36].
Other potential alternatives
The compressive strength of fly ash based blended concrete followed an increasing pattern up to 10% incorporation of fly ash accompanied by a decreasing trend beyond 10%. At different percentages of cement replacement with fly ash, the obtained concrete's relative compressive strength was 1.01, 1.03, 0.99, 0.97, 0.96, and 0.91 at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, respectively [148]. Further, the compressive strength of blended concrete with fly ash was found to be 25, 25.4, 25.6, 23.5, and 20.9 MPa after 28 days by incorporating 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80% fly ash as cement replacement, correspondingly [125]. It is evident that fly ash based blended concrete's compressive strength raises up to specific replacement levels [158]. However, as a result of the low calcium content in blended concrete, compressive strength dropped with increasing quantities of fly ash substitution [46]. According to earlier research studies, the strength gain of fly ash-based blended concrete was higher at later stages of curing owing to the development of secondary hydration compounds in concrete [159]. This resulted in an enhanced compressive strength of concrete incorporating an optimum percentage of fly ash at later stages [46].
Menendez et al. [149] observed that substituting 10, 25, and 35% of cement with bottom ash led to a concrete specimen with a relative compressive strength of 1.04, 0.81, and 0.67, correspondingly, when compared with the control concrete specimen. This occurred because coarse bottom ash particles were included into the mixture, which raised the concrete's porosity. Bottom ash based blended concrete was found to have a higher compressive strength than the reference concrete after 28 days of curing [160]. Nevertheless, incorporating ground bottom ash particles increased the compressive strength of blended concrete by 28, 35, 35, and 32 MPa for 0, 10, 20, and 30% bottom ash content, respectively [107]. Gholampur et al. [127] witnessed a 3-day compressive strength for GGBFS based blended concrete of 32.8 MPa, 32.7 MPa, 26.8 MPa, and 24.3 MPa, respectively for 0, 50, 70, and 90% incorporation of GGBFS. In contrast, an improvement in the compressive strength of 46.7, 52.2, 49.2, and 45.4 MPa for the substitution of cement with GGBFS at 0, 50, 70, and 90%, correspondingly at 90 days [127].
Similar enhancements in the relative compressive strength have been noted for blended concrete with GGBFS at different proportions of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70%. These values were 1.07, 1.11, 1.14, 1.24, 1.14, 1.12, and 1.11 [122]. This points out that the compressive strength of the replacement concrete is perpetually greater than that of the control concrete. Later in the hydration process, subsequent pozzolanic reactions between the GGBFS and the calcium hydroxide in the concrete started out, which resulted in a surge in compressive strength.
It has been observed that the blended concrete comprising silica fume possessed a higher compressive strength, regardless of low silica fume replacement levels. In comparison to the control concrete, Wong et al. [123] noticed that the compressive strength of silica fume based blended concrete rose by 5.35 percent, 13.69 percent, and 20.23 percent when cement was substituted with silica fume at 5, 10, and 15 percent, correspondingly. In a comparable way, it was shown that blended concrete incorporating 6, 10, and 15% silica fume substitution exhibited compressive strengths of 58, 65, 67.5, and 70 MPa, respectively [150]. The increase in the compressive strength of silica fume based blended concrete was owing to the improved strength of the cement paste that created an enhanced bond between the aggregates and the cement paste. The rise in the strength of the cement paste in the blended concrete was a result of the higher silica content and the fine particle size of the silica fume particles. This eliminated the weak interface between the aggregates and the cement paste leading to a dense microstructure of concrete [161, 162].
When substituting cement with metakaolin at lower replacement levels, a comparable trend was noticed in the compressive strength of blended concrete. Brooks and Johari [129] determined that the relative compressive strength of blended concrete comprising 5, 10, and 15% metakaolin, correspondingly, was 1.05, 1.19, and 1.18. The formation of secondary hydration compounds in the late curing stages and the fineness of the metakaolin particles have been accountable for the phenomenon [59, 163]. Previous investigation has shown that when cement is substituted with CKD, the blended concrete's compressive strength drops [62, 63]. This was due to the presence of high amounts of calcium with the least amount of silica and alumina in CKD. For blended concrete made with CKD as the replacement for cement at 0, 10, 20, 25, and 30%, the resulting compressive strengths were 31, 27, 23, 24, and 24 MPa, correspondingly [130]. On the contrary, an increment in the compressive strength of CKD based blended concrete was observed owing to the filling ability of very fine CKD particles at smaller replacement levels [142].
An increase followed by a decrease in the compressive strength was observed while replacing cement with ceramic waste powder in blended concrete. As stated by Mohit and Sharifi et al. [80], the compressive strength of blended concrete which comprises ceramic waste powder at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% was 48.51, 50.43, 53.93, 47.24, 44.65, and 45.85 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, Agil and Kumar witnessed the relative compressive strength of blended concrete to be 1.04, 1.09, and 0.95 for the substitution of cement with ceramic waste powder at 10, 15, and 20%, correspondingly with respect to the control specimen [152]. The variation in the compressive strength was attributed to the filling ability of ceramic waste powder at early ages up to certain replacement levels [80]. Beyond the optimum level, the strength declined due to an increase in the powder content. Whereas, at later ages, the compressive strength was observed to be increased owing to the pozzolanic reactivity of ceramic waste powder in blended concrete [68, 164]. The compressive strength of blended concrete subsequently followed the comparable trend while leftover marble powder was utilized as a substitute of cement. Uysal et al. [134] noticed that while substituting 10, 20, and 30% of the cement with marble waste powder, the concrete that was produced possessed a relative compressive strength of 1.01, 0.96, and 0.95, respectively, when compared with the control concrete. In an analogous way, Ergun et al. [153] identified that substituting 0, 5, 7.5, and 10% of the cement with marble waste powder yielded a compressive strength of 35.4, 39.4, 39.9, and 31.1 MPa in blended concrete, respectively. The waste marble powder acted as a filler material in blended concrete which improved the compressive strength up to certain replacement levels [153].
Blended concrete with glass powder exhibited a relative compressive strength of 1.15, 1.07, 1.05, 0.99, 0.97, and 0.94 when compared with the control concrete specimen at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30% glass powder replacement, correspondingly [136]. Compressive strength was found to be improved by 10.54, 16.95, 14.52, and 8.83% when 5, 10, 15, and 20% glass powder were incorporated [137]. The increment in the compressive strength was on account of the utilisation of ultra-fine glass particles that behaved as a filler material at lower replacement levels. However, beyond certain levels, the presence of glass created a weak cohesion between the glass particles and the cement paste [19, 74]. On the other hand, a drastic decline in the compressive strength of blended concrete incorporating wood ash was perceived at every replacement level. Elinwa et al. [138] obtained a relative compressive strength of blended concrete as 0.93, 0.78, 0.68, 0.49, 0.4, and 0.38 for the replacement of cement with wood ash at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%, correspondingly. The reduction in the compressive strength was a result of the high water absorption capacity of wood ash which hinders the hydration process in concrete [78].
Possibility of reusing SCMs in India
The present study aims to demonstrate various types of pozzolans that can be used as substitutes for cement in blended concrete. The study also seeks to enhance comprehension regarding the availability and accessibility of easily obtainable pozzolans in different locations of India. The close geographical vicinity of agricultural waste ash supply enhances the economic potential and durability of utilising these substances in cement manufacturing by cutting expenses, mitigating environmental consequences, ensuring material excellence, and facilitating recycling practices. The presence of pozzolans in the surrounding region reduces transportation costs for these ashes to cement and ready-mix concrete manufacturing plants, thereby increasing the financial viability of using these materials. Conversely, the transportation of pozzolans across extended distances significantly amplifies the carbon footprint. By procuring pozzolans from nearby sources, the negative environmental effects associated with transportation are minimised, thereby supporting the sustainability objectives of eco-friendly construction methods.
According to a study conducted by Athira et al., it was determined that the probability of locating a sugar plant near a cement factory was significantly greater compared to the possibility of finding a steel plant or a power plant in the same area [165]. Moreover, a significant number of the ready-mix concrete facilities in Indian states including Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana have reported benefits in utilising SCBA instead of fly ash and GGBFS in their concrete batching processes. Furthermore, the use of SCBA has been proven to result in a significant reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions within the ready-mix concrete sector, as demonstrated by Athira et al. in 2021 [166]. Jyothsna et al. conducted a study on the availability of RHA for biomass combustion in existing sugar mills and coal thermal plants in 36 districts of Maharashtra. The adoption of RHA was shown to be highly advantageous in terms of both economic and environmental sustainability [167].
In this regard, the geographic distribution of various agricultural waste ashes and other potential alternatives throughout India are illustrated to have proper insight regarding the accessibility of these materials across India. Figures 9 and 10 depict the wide variety of available AWAs, while Figs. 11, 12, and 13 represent the availability of other potential alternatives.
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Fig. 9
Availability of SCBA and RHA in India
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Fig. 10
Availability of bamboo leaf ash and banana leaf ash in India
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Fig. 11
Availability of metakaolin, GGBFS, fly ash and bottom ash in India
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Fig. 12
Availability of glass powder, silica fume and CKD in India
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Fig. 13
Availability of wood ash, ceramic and marble waste powder in India
AWAs
The generation of sugarcane bagasse ash is found in different parts of India. The major states with regard to sugarcane production include Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, among others. Moreover, the principal states of India in which rice cultivation is prominent include Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and certain regions in North India.
The primary states with regard to banana cultivation include Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, and Chhattisgarh, among others. The ashes of bamboo leaves can be obtained from several locations such as Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Other potential alternatives
Fly ash and bottom ash are the residual products collected from thermal power plants positioned across India. The primary locations of the large thermal power plants are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Orissa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and West Bengal, among others. In the same way, the primary steel manufacturing industries in India are situated in Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, among others, from which GGBFS can be sourced. In contrast, the regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka contain deposits abundant in kaolinite, a key mineral utilized for the production of metakaolin.
Furthermore, cement kiln dust refers to the residual waste material derived from cement production plants. Cement factories are distributed throughout India, while the major manufacturing plants are found in the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Assam, Haryana, Kerala, West Bengal, among other regions. Moreover, the manufacturing industries for silicon and ferrosilicon exhibit limited presence, mostly concentrated in select regions of Gujarat, Delhi, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Moreover, the glass production industries are located in various parts of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka.
However, the ceramic and marble production sectors are mainly found in Gujarat, with a lesser operation in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and other regions. The main wood industries of manufacture are situated in many regions like Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, among others.
Optimum replacement levels for different SCMs utilized in blended concrete
The determination of the optimal replacement levels for various kinds of pozzolans as substitutes for cement is of the utmost importance in order to facilitate the successful incorporation of these pozzolans into blended concrete. Furthermore, the addition of pozzolans at optimum replacement levels contributes to the attainment of the highest possible benefits in terms of both workability and strength of blended concrete. The optimum level of replacement for different agricultural waste ashes is considered from earlier research articles based on two considerations namely (i) the agricultural waste ashes are processed by grinding the ashes equivalent to the fineness of cement to eliminate the effect due to the particle size of the pozzolan, and (ii) the agricultural waste ashes possess a minimum pozzolanic activity index (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) of more than 70% as per ASTM C618 [103]. Table 3 presents the summarized outcomes of various previous investigation, indicating the optimal replacement levels of different SCMs.
Table 3. Optimum replacement levels of the AWAs and other possible alternatives
Type of SCM | Optimum replacement levels (%) | References |
|---|---|---|
AWAs | ||
RHA | 10–20 | [7] |
SCBA | 10–20 | [36] |
Banana leaf ash | 10 | [38] |
Bamboo leaf ash | 10 | [40] |
Other potential alternatives | ||
Fly ash | 15–30 | [168] |
Bottom ash | 10–20 | [50] |
GGBFS | 25–50 | [6] |
Silica fume | 10–20 | [169] |
Metakaolin | 10–15 | [163] |
CKD | 10 | [63] |
Ceramic waste powder | 10–20 | [68] |
Marble waste powder | 5–10 | [70] |
Glass powder | 10–20 | [19] |
Wood ash | 10–20 | [76] |
Carbon footprint comparison
The construction of a G + 1 (Ground + One Storey) reinforced concrete building with demand to capacity ratio of 0.8, depicted in Fig. 14 has been suggested to be carried out employing an M20 (‘M’ representing Mixture, and ‘20’ representing characteristic compressive strength of 20 MPa) grade nominal mixture of concrete in accordance with the Indian Standards—IS 10262:2019 [170] and IS 456:2000 [171]. The mix percentage utilized for the M20 mix is determined as 1:1.5:3, indicating the ratio of cement, fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates in the concrete. The data clearly indicates that the volume of dry concrete exceeds the volume of wet concrete by 54% [172]. Therefore, the total quantity of concrete required turn out to be 1.54 cubic meters. The Eq. 1 indicates that the quantity of cement demanded is 0.28 cubic meters.
1
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 14
Isometric view of the considered G + 1 RCC building
The Eq. (1) can be used for calculating the volume of cement in a concrete mixture. The volume of cement is determined by dividing the quantity of cement by the sum of the quantities of cement, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate, and then multiplying the result by 1.54. In this particular case, the volume of cement is calculated to be 0.28 m3. In addition, it should be noted that the mass of cement needed for filling a volume of one cubic meter is 1440 kg. As a consequence, in order to obtain a volume of cement equal to 0.28 cubic meters, the appropriate weight of cement needed would be 403.2 kg. Therefore, a quantity of 0.4032 metric tonnes of cement is required to achieve a volume of one cubic meter in M20 concrete.
The G + 1 reinforced concrete building under assessment has been modeled and analyzed with STAAD Pro V8i software, by having the demand to capacity ratio of 0.8 for all the structural elements and fixed end conditions at the foundation. The computed total volume of reinforced concrete required, as determined by the STAAD Pro analysis, is 69.5 m3. Considering a presumed steel reinforcement of 2%, the total volume of concrete required becomes 67.5 cubic meters. Furthermore, the quantity of 27.216 tonnes of cement is required for making a volume of 67.5 cubic meters of concrete.
In accordance with the outcomes of the Cement Sustainability Initiative report that was released in 2009 [173], it was determined that the average CO2 emissions is about 0.866 tonnes per metric tonne of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) clinker produced. As a consequence, the manufacturing of 27.216 tonnes of cement leads to the emission of 23.569 tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere. Figure 15 depicts the gross CO2 emissions, determined as tonnes per tonne, of several types of AWAs and other potential alternative pozzolans generated in India. The data clearly indicates a decline of 41% in the CO2 emissions while generating GGBFS compared to the emissions associated with cement manufacture. In the meantime, the utilization of fly ash leads to a notable reduction of 30% in CO2 emissions compared to the emissions generated by cement. In addition, the use of bottom ash and glass powder brings about in a notable reduction of around 20% in CO2 emissions. Furthermore, a substantial cut of 14% in CO2 emissions was observed for ceramic waste powder, SCBA, and banana leaf ashes. Other types of pozzolans, including silica fume, CKD, metakaolin, marble waste powder, wood ash, RHA, and bamboo leaf ashes, exhibit a substantial decrease of approximately 10% in CO2 emissions.
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 15
Carbon-di-oxide emissions per tonne of AWAs and other potential alternatives
The utilization of 50% GGBFS as a substitute for cement results in a noteworthy reduction in the cement volume by 13.608 tonnes. Thus, it aids to reduce the release of 18.724 tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere. There is a clear and significant decline of 4.8 tonnes (26%) in CO2 emissions when comparing the OPC without any replacements. In a comparable manner, the incorporation of 20% fly ash in the OPC concrete results in the use of 5.443 tonnes of fly ash and 21.773 tonnes of OPC. The incorporation of a 20% fly ash in OPC concrete results in the emission of 22.115 tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere. This observation implies a decline in CO2 emissions by 6.6%.
In a similar manner, when cement is substituted with 20% SCBA, 20% RHA, 10% banana leaf ash, and 10% bamboo leaf ash individually, the resulting CO2 emissions are 22.83 tonnes, 23.1 tonnes, 23.2 tonnes, and 23.3 tonnes, respectively. These values are comparatively smaller compared to the CO2 emissions associated with OPC concrete. The findings indicates that the utilization of 20% SCBA, 20% RHA, 10% banana leaf ash, and 10% bamboo leaf ash as substitutes for cement results in reductions of CO2 emissions by 741, 459, 369, and 239 kg, correspondingly, in comparison to OPC concrete.
Hiloidhari et al. conducted an assessment of the carbon footprint of cogeneration using sugarcane bagasse in the state of Maharashtra, which is the second-largest sugarcane producer in India [174]. The carbon footprint of sugarcane bagasse-based bioenergy in Maharashtra was estimated to be 0.13 kg CO2e/kWh. According to Hiloidhari et al., the carbon footprint of sugarcane bagasse-based bioenergy across its life cycle was significantly lower, ranging from 5 to 12 times less than that of coal-based electricity [174]. Similarly, incorporating RHA with other possible pozzolans as a substitute for cement resulted in a substantial 25% reduction in carbon emissions [175]. Moreover, the utilisation of RHA as a replacement for cement necessitated a decrease in cement production, thus substantially lowering fuel burning and subsequently leading to a decrease in carbon footprints.
Hence, it can be comprehended that the utilization of pozzolans as SCM in concrete results in a noteworthy mitigation of CO2 emissions on a wider scale, which is achieved by the reduction of OPC quantity required for construction purposes.
Conclusions
This study aims to carry out an in-depth comparative evaluation of the effectiveness of agricultural waste by-products in comparison to several recognized pozzolans. The objective is to facilitate the widespread acceptance of agricultural waste ashes as pozzolanic materials in concrete applications. Furthermore, this research delivers an analysis of the geographical distribution of these alternative materials across various parts of India. Additionally, it explores the most suitable level of substitution for these materials in the context of blended concrete considering the physical and chemical properties of the pozzolanic materials used in the study. Furthermore, the main focus of this study is to assess the extent to which carbon dioxide emissions can be mitigated by the use of various agricultural waste ashes and other viable alternatives, in comparison to Ordinary Portland Cement. The section that follows presents the important conclusions.
Agricultural waste ashes had the lowest specific gravity among alternate cementitious materials for concrete inclusion. AWAs' porous, lightweight composition and unburnt carbon particles lower their specific gravity. However, a lower specific gravity yields more paste when weight-based replacement is adopted.
Blended concrete with most pozzolans, specifically AWAs, decreased concrete workability. The porous nature, high water absorption, lower specific gravity, higher surface area, and unburnt carbon particles in agricultural waste ashes decrease the workability of blended concrete using AWAs.
Blended concrete containing different AWAs showed increased compressive strength up to optimal replacement levels. This may be due to formation of additional CSH gels. AWAs-based blended concrete has decreased compressive strength beyond the recommended replacement levels.
Agricultural waste ashes are more accessible than industrial waste by-products across India. The quantity of agricultural waste by-products makes it possible to use them as pozzolans in concrete, resulting in economic and environmentally sound construction.
The optimum replacement levels of the agricultural waste ashes such as Rice Husk ash, Sugarcane Bagasse ash, Banana leaf ash, and Bamboo leaf ash are observed to be 20, 20, 10, and 10% in accordance with cement, respectively.
Compared to OPC-used concrete, blended concrete has a less carbon footprint. While generating GGBFS, fly ash, SCBA, RHA, banana leaf ash, and bamboo leaf ash, CO2 emissions are 41, 30, 14, 10, and 10% less than OPC.
Hence, it can be pointed out that the incorporation of agricultural waste ashes as pozzolans in blended concrete provides potential advantages compared to the typical use of industrial waste by-products. The justification for this assertion is based on the extensive availability of agricultural waste ashes in various regions of India, when compared to other pozzolans that are generally utilized. In addition, the utilization of agricultural waste ashes as a pozzolan in blended concrete results in a notable decrease in CO2 emissions on a larger scale, as it reduces the quantity of Ordinary Portland Cement needed for construction purposes.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Abbreviations
Carbon dioxide
Agricultural Waste Ashes
Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate
Rice Husk Ash
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Cement Kiln Dust
Supplementary Cementitious Material
Ordinary Portland Cement
Reinforced Cement Concrete
Loss on Ignition
Scanning Electron Microscope
Ground + One Storey
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