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The northern periphery of the Indian craton is the leading edge of the under-thrusting continent in the continent–continent collision set up between the Indian and Eurasian plates. It is featured by the extensive peripheral foreland basin from Rajasthan in the west to Upper Assam valley in the east, bordering the foothills of the Himalaya. Upper Assam represents the northeastern corner of the Indian continental plate. This part of the craton is caught up between the Himalayan orogen on the northwest and the Assam–Arakan orogen on the southeast due to collision with the Eurasian and Burma microplate/Indosinian plates, respectively. Continued synchronous convergence of both the plates resulted in flexing of the narrow cratonic platform between them on either side and deposition of thick sediment wedges. This resulted in the development of two conjugate peripheral foreland basins sloping away from each other on either side of a central arch called the Bramhaputra Arch. This special type of foreland basin is described here as the “Upper Assam inter-orogenic peripheral foreland basin” (Biswas et al. 1993). Whereas the collision with the Eurasian plate is a straight-edge collision, that with the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate is oblique. In the southeastern flank, pre-orogenic marine shelfal and flysch sediments, which were deposited on the southeastern passive margin of the Indian plate, are stratigraphically overlain by syn-orogenic molasse in the northeastern sutured part of the obliquely disposed colliding plates. As the two plates converge progressively southward, the molasse sediments prograde southwestward and the inner tongue with the flysch sediments in the remnant ocean basin of the Bay of Bengal. These sediment dynamics are discussed here. The Indian plate drifted into a convergent setup as it is positioned opposite the Andaman-Sumatran arc in the Late Eocene–Oligocene. In this setup the northeastern part, which includes the Upper Assam–Tripura–Bengal basin, is characterized by shelfal sediments thrust over by the deep marine sediments in the subduction complex (Schuppen Belt) and overlain by the prograding packages of deltaic molasse sediments. In the northwestern Himalayan front, post-orogenic fluvial molasse sediments are deposited on the Proterozoic basement, and the autochthonous occurrence of pre-orogenic marine sediments is doubtful.
Introduction
Peripheral Foreland basins are located at the periphery of the subducting plate, frontal to the orogen. Post-collision convergence leads to the uplift and foreland-ward advancement of the orogen by progressive footwall deformation [1]. Continued tectonic loading results in underthrusting and down flexing of the foreland near the advancing orogen. This leads to the formation of peripheral foreland basins with a central bulge (Fig. 1). Molassic sediments scraped from the emergent orogen rapidly fill up the basins thus formed.
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Fig. 1
Section across the Himalayan Peripheral Foreland Basin. Shows the typical geometry of a peripheral foreland basin. Down flexing of the subducting basement creates a characteristic peripheral bulge or basement arch. Scraped sediments (molasse) from the rising orogenic front are deposited directly over the basement. MBT: Main Boundary Fault, MCT: Main Central Thrust, ITSZ: Indo-Tibet Suture Zone, KKT: Karakoram Thrust. (After [2])
The northern part of the Indian plate is bordered by an extensive peripheral foreland basin referred to as the Himalayan Foreland Basin, which stretches from Rajasthan in the west to the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis in the east (Fig. 2 [3]). It occupies the extensive sub-Himalayan plains limited by the frontal thrust. Intra-basinal first-order ridges divide the foreland into four sub-basins—from the west, Rajasthan, Punjab, Ganga, and Assam. The Assam foreland basin occupying the upper Brahmaputra valley is commonly described as the Upper Assam Shelf (Fig. 3). It represents the northeastward extension of the Indian craton, including the Shillong and Mikir Hill massifs. This part of the craton caught up between the Himalayan orogen in the northwest and Assam-Arakan orogen in the southeast (Fig. 3) is a special type of peripheral foreland basin uniquely developed at the northeastern corner of the Indian craton. Such a basin, consisting of two peripheral foreland basins sloping away from each other, is formed when the peripheral foreland region is wedged between two collision fronts. It is defined as a special type of foreland basin—an “inter-orogenic peripheral foreland basin” (Fig. 2 [3]). The Upper Assam shelf is a typical example of this type of foreland basin.
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Fig. 2
Sedimentary Basin map of India (after [3]). Note the occurrence of the Peripheral foreland basin, IIIB and the Interorogenic foreland basin, IIIC
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Fig. 3
Tectonic map of NE India (courtesy ONGC). The northeastern part of the Assam Shelf, north of Mikir Hill, is the Inter-Orogenic-Peripheral-Foreland basin. BHDF: Barisal-Halflong-Disang Fault along HH-T3-Naga Hills lineament. Y-Y' is the line of section shown in Fig. 7
Many workers had studied the Upper Assam basin, dealing with basin type, tectonic framework, stratigraphy, tectono-sedimentary evolution, and plate dynamics [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10–11]. In this paper, we discuss the plate dynamics leading to the development of the Upper Assam “Inter-orogenic peripheral foreland basin” with a focus on the Upper Assam foreland basin by integrating the available information.
Features of peripheral foreland basin (PFB) and inter-orogenic peripheral foreland basin (IOPFB)
Foreland basins are characterized by the following features:
Located in the convergent setup – continent–continent collision (Fig. 1).
Represents the sloping passive margin of the subducting continent.
Situated on the peripheral platform of the subducting continent, frontal to the orogen.
Down flexing of the platform forms a peripheral bulge.
Post-orogenic molasse sediments overlie Pre-orogenic sediments (flysch and passive margin shelf association).
Uplift and recycling of the molasses also occur as the orogen keeps advancing.
The sedimentary wedge is prism-shaped, thickest at the foot of the orogen, and thinning gradually towards the interior cratonic platform.
The structural style is dominated by thin-skin tectonics adjoining the orogen and normal gravity tectonics towards the hinterland.
Sediments are generally fluvio-lacustrine deposits over old passive margin paleo-shelf deposits.
IOPFBs are foreland basins located on the cratonic platform wedged between the two Orogenic belts, i.e., two collision fronts. Continued synchronous convergence of both orogens resulted in flexing of the foreland on either side of the arched-up narrow cratonic platform and deposition of thick sediment wedges on the flanks. The basins have a bi-polar geometry with two PFBs sloping away from the central arch. Each of them is a foreland sub-basin showing the characteristic features mentioned above. The Upper Assam is a typical example of IOPFB with two PFBs, a northwest sloping PFB, the Himalayan Foreland basin (HFB), frontal to the Himalayan mobile belt (Figs. 1 and 4) and a southeast sloping PFB, frontal to the Assam-Arakan mobile belt, Assam-Arakan Foreland basin (AAFB) (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4
Section across the Inter-orogenic foreland basin of Upper Assam. HFB: Himalayan foreland sub-basin; AAFB: Assam-Arakan foreland sub-basin; BPA: Brahmaputra Arch. (Modified after Das Gupta and Biswas2000)
The Brahmaputra River flows close to the faulted axial region of the central arch (Fig. 3). In the southeastern, PFB pre-orogenic marine paleo-shelf sequences are stratigraphically overlain by syn-orogenic flysch and molasse, a situation ideal for hydrocarbon occurrence (Fig. 5). In contrast, in the northwestern PFB autochthonous occurrence of the pre-orogenic marine sequence is doubtful due to much greater subduction at that front. This Upper Assam IOPFB is continuous with the Lower Assam PFB (Fig. 2), which is part of the Himalayan Foreland Basin.
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Fig. 5
Cross-section across Upper Assam Shelf: Assam-Arakan peripheral foreland basin -Southern foreland sub-basin of the Upper Assam IOPFB (After ONGC)
The Upper Assam foreland system, in accordance with classic foreland basin theory, can be subdivided into discrete flexural provinces resulting from crustal flexure under orogenic loading: the foredeep, forebulge, and backbulge [12]. The foredeep is the primary locus of basin subsidence and is typically filled with deep marine (flysch) facies, representing the underfilled stage of foreland evolution. In the Upper Assam context, this corresponds to thick accumulations of Eocene–Oligocene flysch deposits (e.g., Disang and Barail Groups), directly adjacent to the orogenic front as shown in Fig. 5.
Tectonic set-up of Upper Assam
The Indian continental plate collided with the Eurasian plate to the north in Mid-Eocene (Fig. 6A). Its northeastern corner collided obliquely with the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate in the Late Oligocene, and the two plates started converging progressively as the Indian plate rotated anticlockwise (Fig. 6B) [5, 13]. As a result, two orogenic belts wrap around the northeastern corner of the Indian continental plate (Fig. 3), making a zone of convergence of three plates. The Himalayan belt on the north marks the Indian and Eurasian plate collision zone. The Assam-Arakan belt in the southeast marks the collision front of the Indian plate and the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate (amalgamated Burmese and Malayasian plates) [13]. Whereas N-S convergence of Indian and Eurasian plates resulted in a straight collision, the northward drift of the Indian plate along an anticlockwise path resulted in an oblique ‘soft collision’ [14] with the NW–SE trending Burma microplate/Indosinian plate (Fig. 6A). The northeastern corner of the Indian Plate between the two converging orogenic belts formed the Upper Assam IOPFB (Figs. 3, 4). The Assam-Arakan orogenic belt continued southward as the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatran arc-trench complex maintained a westerly convexity, which bulges in its northwestern part, representing the fore-arc accretionary prism of Tripura (Fig. 3). Further west, this fold belt rides over the eastern part of the Bengal basin, which is a remnant ocean basin [7, 8, 15]. Sediments are deposited directly over the oceanic crust of the Bay of Bengal—a part of the Northeastern Indian Ocean (Fig. 7).
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Fig. 6
A Position of the Indian Plate in the Middle Eocene. B Position of the Indian Plate in the Late Oligocene
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Fig. 7
Schematic crustal cross section approximately along line Y-Y’ in Fig. 3. Shows remnant ocean basin (ROB) of Bangladesh, SE of Upper Assam IOPFB. del: deltaic deposit. Sh: shelf deposit (after [16])
The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Upper Assam foreland system is intrinsically linked to the rheological properties and structural complexity of the underlying Pre-Cambrian basement. The craton margin comprises several basement blocks of variable thickness and mechanical strength, whose boundaries act as zones of mechanical contrast influencing the flexural response of the lithosphere to orogenic loading [17]. Understanding these basement controls is essential, as they modulate the flexural profile’s geometry and sediment accumulation pathways, affecting hydrocarbon prospectivity and basin maturation patterns within the Upper Assam foreland basin.
Plate dynamics
The geodynamics of NE India is controlled by three major faults (Fig. 3):
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) along the Himalayan foothill belt,
Dauki strike-slip fault (DF) along the southern margin of the Shillong cratonic block, and
Barisal-Halflong-Disang strike-slip fault (BHDF) along the Hail-Hakalula-T3 (HH-T3) lineament.
HH-lineament is seen as the extension of the Disang-Naga thrust into the Tripura region [18] and Tectonic trend – T3 in Bangladesh through the Faridpur trough and sub-marine canyon ‘Swatch of no Grounds’ [19].
The Himalayan Foreland sub-basin (HFB) was formed by under thrusting of the Indian Craton below the Himalayan subduction complex to the north along the MBT. The DF, a dextral strike-slip fault, is the eastward continuation of the Narmada-Son geofracture along a mega lineament interpreted as an ocean-to-continent trans-continental transform fault (Fig. 8) [20, 21–22]. The Disang thrust defines the transform boundary between the sutured part of the northeastern margin of the Indian and Burma microplate/Indosinian plates. This transform fault seems to extend southwestward as BHDF. It follows the HH-T3 mega lineament through Assam–Tripura–Bangladesh with a dextral slip [18, 19, 22]. This fault trend matches with the Eastern Ghat-Palghat mega-lineament through the Cauvery shear zone and its extension to the western offshore as a major strike-slip fault along the Telicherry arch [20, 22]. Thus, BHDF seems to be the northeastern part of another trans-continental transform fault, which extends from the Carlsberg ridge to the Naga Schuppen belt along a mega shear zone. The two strike-slip faults, DF and BHDF, join near Halflong, forming the deep Surma basin in Bangladesh (shown as Sylhet trough in Fig. 3), with more than 15 km thick sediments [23] in the trans-tensional zone between the converging faults. Further NE, underthrusting of the northeastern shelf below the Assam-Arakan mobile belt along the Naga thrust in the same trend created the Assam Arakan Foreland sub-basin (AAFB). The Sumatran subduction complex passes northward into the transform system of the Burmese arc, through the Andaman-Nicobar Arc, where oblique plate collision had taken place (Figs. 6A, 8). The plates are presently converging with progressive southwestward suturing (Fig. 10A, B). The suturing has progressed almost up to the Bangladesh east coast, south of the Tripura-Chittagong forearc-trench complex (Fig. 3). The Bengal basin offshore Bangladesh remained as a Remnant Ocean basin (ROB) (Figs. 7, 9) [3, 5, 8].
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Fig. 8
Mega-tectonic lineament across the Indian craton converging in the Upper Assam transform plate boundary. Lineaments represent transcontinental transform faults. See text for their role in neotectonics. (After [20])
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Fig. 9
Schematic map showing tectono-sedimentary regimens of Upper Assam IOPFB based on sedimentation model in Fig. 10. (Modified after [15])
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Fig. 10
Tectono-sedimentary framework of Upper Assam IOPFB showing sediment dynamics. (Modified after [15]). A: Schematic map showing sediment transportation and deposition vis-à-vis tectonic framework with progressive suturing of two obliquely converging plates. B: schematic map showing sediment distribution pattern in the tectonic set-up of oblique collision of the Indian and Burma microplate/Indosinian plates, sediments prograding from Upper Assam shelf towards Tripura fore-arc
Naik [9, 10] and Naik et al. [11] described the geodynamics of Northeastern India and presented a tectonic wedging model of AAFB that evolved through the transition of the passive margin to oblique collision convergent setup. He interpreted three tectonic phases. A Progradation Phase—the initial basin generation phase, which started with India–Australia–Antarctica rifting, and subsequent drifting of the Indian plate in the Cretaceous [14, 24].
The eastern coast of India, trending NE-SW, evolved as a passive margin as the Northeastern Indian Ocean opened and started to spread. A Retrogradation Phase followed this stage. This second phase started with the subduction of the Indian plate along the southern boundary of the Eurasian plate in the Late-Mid Eocene. Subsequently, the northeastern margin of the Indian plate also started to subduct along the Indo-Burman Trench. This finally led to the Indo-Burman orogeny along the northeastern edge of the plate in the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene time (Fig. 6A). The closure of the northern part of the Northeastern Indian Ocean placed the northern part of the eastern passive margin of India into a collision front (Fig. 9).
The third phase, the Orogenic Phase, is the most important tectonic phase, which changed the Upper Assam part of the passive margin into a PFB. Continued convergence shifted the foredeep axis as the suturing between the plates progressed southwestward (Fig. 10A). The foredeep attended the terminal phase of development with the evolution of the Naga Schuppen belt during the Miocene. The southern part of the foredeep remained open as a part of a remnant ocean basin. This was closed later as the orogenic belt migrated southward with progressive suturing.
Tectono-sedimentary evolution
The occurrence of two distinct facies (Table 1) grading to each other is well known in this basin. Mathur and Evans [25] described these as shelf and geosynclinal facies (presently termed as flysch facies). A third facies, post-orogenic molasse facies, is recognized now. The complex sedimentation pattern evolved through two distinct tectonic stages—a rift stage during separation of the Australia–Antarctica plate in the Mid-Cretaceous and a subsequent convergence stage in Late Oligocene onwards after oblique collision with the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate. The sedimentation pattern shows the interplay of three main diachronous lithofacies mentioned above—marine shelf, flysch, and molasse. Shelfal facies represents the shallow marine deposit on the northeastern passive margin shelf of the Indian plate, flysch sediments represent the deep marine sedimentation in the intervening ocean between two converging plates and molasse sediments represent the post-collision continental deposit which are mostly the scraped sediments from the advancing orogenic fronts. The interplay of these facies designed the present complex sedimentation pattern in AAFB as shown in Fig. 10B.
Table 1. Tertiary Succession in Assam Foreland Basins (Modified After [25])
Age | Group | Stages and local facies | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marine & flysch sediments | Shelf sediments | ||||
Surma valley Formations: | Upper Assam & Naga Hills Formations: | Lower Assam—Meghalaya Formations: | |||
RECENT & PLEISTOCENE | - | ALLUVIUM & HIGH-LEVEL TERRACE BEDS | ALLUVIUM & HIGH-LEVEL TERRACE BEDS | ALLUVIUM & HIGH-LEVEL TERRACE BEDS | |
PLIOCENE | DIHING | NOT SUBDIVIDED 400m | NOT SUBDIVIDED 900m | DHEKHIAJULI BEDS 1900m | |
MIO-PLIOCENE | DUPITILA | UPPER 2000m LOWER 500m | NAMSANG BEDS 800m | NAMSANG BEDS 600m | |
MIOCENE | TIPAM SURMA | GIRUJAN CLAY 1500m TIPAM SANDSTONE 3000m BOKABIL 1500m BHUVAN 4000m | GIRUJAN CLAY 1800m TIPAM SANDSTONE 2300m NOT SUBDIVIDED 900m | GIRUJAN CLAY 600m TIPAM SANDSTONE 900m NOT SUBDIVIDED 200m | |
OLIGOCENE | BARAIL | RENJI 1000m JENAM 1200m LAISONG 2000m | TIKOK PARBAT 600m BARGOLAI 3300m NAOGAON 2200m | NOT SUBDIVIDED 1200m | |
EOCENE | DISANG | NOT SUBDIVIDED > 1500m | NOT SUBDIVIDED > 3000m | JAINTIA GROUP | KOPILI Fm 500m SYLHET Fm. 500m TURA Sd.St. 200m |
The AAFB evolved through rift basin, marginal sag basin, and foreland basin stages during the three tectonic phases as discussed above [10]. Three distinct cycles of sedimentation took place during these phases, characterizing the basin as a poly-history basin [26]. Rift fill, shelfal, and molasse sediments were deposited respectively during rift, sag, and foreland stages. Due to ‘soft collision’ [14] and gradual convergence of plates, synchronous deposition and mixing of flysch and molasse sediments took place (Fig. 10B). The synchronous association of fluvial sediments (Tipam Group) and flysch (Surma Group) in the Early Miocene is the result of this. This was further complicated by the tectonic juxtaposition of the rift, shelf, and deep-water sediments deposited during different cycles. The sporadic occurrences of Cretaceous sediments also suggest the effect of subsequent tectonic movements on the preceding cycle. These early riftogenic sediments were consumed mostly by subduction along the Indo-Burman trench.
Due to oblique collision and suturing at the NE corner, deltaic sediments (Barail coal-shale facies) were transported along the uplifted sutured part of the continents, prograded towards SW over the deepwater sediments of the Tripura fore-arc basin, which is thrust over the Bengal remnant ocean basin (Figs. 7, 10A).
The suturing extended southwestward like a zipper over the remnant ocean basin as the two plates converged progressively consuming the oceanic crust of the present Bay of Bengal between them. Due to this, the delta front sediments (Tipam-Bokabil Groups) were pushed over the deep-water sediments (Bhuvan Group) of Tripura and Surma basins (Fig. 10B). The Tripura fore-arc basin sediments consist of Neogene flysch passing into deep marine facies of Neogene-Quaternary sediments of the Bengal Basin. The Bengal basin fill consists of Late Cretaceous-Paleogene marine shelfal sediments and Neogene deltaic sediments deposited over continental crust grading eastward into deep-water marine sediments over oceanic crust (Fig. 7).
The Gondwana and Cretaceous sediments were deposited, followed by shelfal deposit on the newly created passive margin during the drift-stage in the Eocene (Sylhet and Kopili formations). The shelfal sediments passed into deep-water flysch (Disang Group) towards the spreading sea following the separation of Antarctica in the Cretaceous. As the southeastern passive margin evolved with the spreading of the Northeastern Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal) deltaic sediments prograded over the shelfal sediments, carbonates, and shore face sands. The present convergent setup was created when the northeastern corner of the plate had a soft collision with the Assam–Arakan–Andaman arc-trench system (AAA) frontal to the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate [14] (Fig. 6A, B), which had already converged with the Himalayan belt. The Bay of Bengal started to close in this setup. The flysch sediments proximal to the AAA-arc were covered by clastics derived from the orogenic front in the Disang trough. These sediments grade into the shelf sediments of Bengal towards the west (Fig. 7). Following the collision of the Indian plate with the Burmese plate at its northeastern tip in the Late Oligocene, the two plates were sutured and uplifted (Fig. 10A) [5, 7, 15]. This uplifted part in the NE started to supply clastic sediments, which were transported towards the southeast and deposited as prograding delta lobes (Barail coal-shale association) over the flysch sediments (Laisong-Jenam-Renji formations) of the adjacent sea. As the Indian plate rotated anticlockwise due to slab-pull towards the AAA-arc and the Bay of Bengal floor started to subduct under the arc, the obducting arc-trench complex moved closer to the southeastern shelf of the Indian plate. The deep water and accretionary prism sediments were thrust over the shelfal sediments deposited during the passive margin stage. The suture extended southwestward with the progradation of the deltaic deposit diachronously. Apparently, the Tipam sandstones of Tripura and the coal-shale-sandstone facies of Barail of Upper Assam are parts of the same diachronous delta facies [6]. Thus, from the Oligocene onwards, there was the synchronous deposition of the molasse and flysch sediments in this basin, which explains the coeval occurrence of fluvio-deltaic and deepwater facies in Upper Assam with progradation over the shelfal and deepwater facies deposited during the Eocene.
The tectonic evolution and inter-plate dynamics as described above controlled the sediment dispersal, accommodation, and facies distribution (Fig. 10A, B). This resulted in inter-fingering and tectonic juxtaposition of shelfal sediments with flysch and molasse sediments across the depositional domains of Bengal Remnant Ocean, Tripura Fore Arc, and AAFB [5]. This tectono-sedimentation model is comparable to the Appalachian-Ouachita flysch dispersal system [8]. The northern Himalayan FB shows a simple tectonic style developed by N-S continent–continent collision—a north-sloping foreland platform subducted under the Eurasian plate with the rising orogenic belt on the collision front (Fig. 1). Here, the post-collision Neogene molasse sediments were laid down on the leading edge of the Indian plate, covered by the Late Proterozoic sediment—Vindhyan Super-group (Fig. 4). The leading edge of the Indian plate was the passive margin along the south coast of Paleo-Tethys. Apparently, most parts of the passive margin of Early Paleogene sediments were eroded and consumed due to the greater length and time of subduction. The orogenic front advanced closer to the inner limit of the basin.
Conclusion
The Upper Assam Inter-orogenic-Peripheral Foreland Basin, wedged between two collision fronts, has a unique tectonic style and history. It consists of two foreland basins, the Himalayan foreland basin to the north and the Assam-Arakan foreland basin to the south. Due to the straight collision of the plates, the Himalayan foreland has a comparatively simple structural style and sedimentation pattern. In contrast, the Assam-Arakan foreland, due to oblique collision with the Burma microplate/Indosinian plate and subsequent gradual closure of the intervening sea by plate rotation, has a complex evolutionary history resulting in the complicated structural style and sedimentation pattern. The Assam Arakan FB evolved through three tectonic phases, viz., progradation, retrogradation, and orogenic phase. During the progradation phase, riftogenic sedimentation took place, followed by marine shelfal sedimentation in the passive margin sag basin and synchronous molasse and flysch sedimentation near the orogenic front during subsequent phases. The tectonic evolution started with inter-continental rifting, passed through passive margin development in a divergent setup, and ended up in a convergent collision setup, which is continuing with progressive convergence. Episodic orogenic movement is responsible for the present association of rift-fill, shelfal, deep-water flysch, and molasse (fluvio–deltaic) sediments in Upper Assam.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Mr. A. K. Biswas and Dr. G. C. Nayak for fruitful discussions on the subject. The authors are thankful to three anonymous reviewers for their comments and valuable suggestions. The authors sincerely thank Guest Editor Dr. Gaurav Srivastava for the invitation and the opportunity to contribute this article.
Author contributions
S. K. Biswas: Conceptualization, Fieldwork, Manuscript writing, and supervision. Gaurav Chauhan: Data Compilation, Preparation of the illustrations, and Manuscript Writing.
Funding
The work was not funded by any organization.
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Abbreviations
Assam-Arakan-Andaman orogenic belt & arc-trench System
Assam-Arakan Foreland Basin
Barisal-Halflong-Disang Fault
Foreland Basin
Himalayan Foreland Basin
Hail-Hakalula Lineament (in Naga Hills)
Inter-Orogenic-Peripheral-Foreland Basin
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd., India
Tectonic trend 3 (in Bangladesh)
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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