Content area
The Odisha coast on the eastern margin of India preserves a diverse suite of late Quaternary landforms that record relative sea-level (RSL) changes. This study focuses on the northern sector, where beach–dune complexes and paleo-tidal flats were investigated to reconstruct Holocene shoreline evolution. Organic matter, wood fragments, molluscan shells, and carbonaceous clays were dated using radiocarbon methods, while dune sands were analyzed by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL). The chronology reveals an overall regressive coastal trend during the Holocene, interrupted by higher RSL stands between ~ 8.4 ka and ~ 7.1 ka. Shell horizons from tidal flat deposits indicate mid-Holocene transgressive phases, while OSL ages of ~ 2.4–1.7 ka from inland dune ridges indicate late reworking of aeolian sediments. In addition to eustatic controls, the study suggests localized neotectonic activity that has influenced shoreline stability and sediment preservation. These findings refine the Holocene RSL curve for the Odisha coast, demonstrate deviations from global sea-level patterns, and highlight the combined influence of climatic and tectonic processes in shaping coastal evolution. The study also contributes new chronological data to a region that has remained underrepresented in sea-level reconstructions for the eastern Indian seaboard.
Introduction
Coastal zones represent some of the most dynamic geomorphic environments on Earth, where the interplay between land, ocean, and atmosphere gives rise to a diverse array of landforms. These regions serve as natural archives of environmental change, with sedimentary records preserving signatures of climatic fluctuations and relative sea-level (RSL) variations over time [1, 2, 3, 4–5]. Among the most significant geomorphic features in these zones are beach-dune complexes—elongated linear highs and depressions formed by wave-induced sediment transport. These structures mark former shoreline positions and are invaluable indicators of past sea-level and climatic conditions [6, 7].
In India, extensive research has been conducted on beach ridge complexes along the eastern coastline to reconstruct Holocene sea-level changes. Radiocarbon dating of organic-rich deposits—such as carbonaceous clay, peat, marine shells, and coral fragments—embedded within these paleo-landforms has enabled the development of regional sea-level curves. These studies have focused on the coasts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14–15], compiling radiocarbon dates from offshore and coastal samples to trace shoreline progradation and regression events.
Despite this progress, a substantial data gap persists along the Odisha coast, particularly in its northern sector. This region, characterized by a complex interplay of fluvial and marine processes, hosts parallel beach ridge systems, expansive alluvial plains, and deltaic features such as distributary channels, tidal creeks, and spits. These geomorphic expressions suggest a dynamic history of coastal evolution, yet the chronology is poorly constrained. The lack of radiocarbon age data from Odisha limits the resolution of sea-level reconstructions for the eastern Indian coast—one of the most vulnerable coastal zones globally in the context of climate change and sea-level rise [16].
The present study addresses this gap by investigating the genesis and chronology of paleo-landforms along the Odisha coast using conventional radiocarbon dating techniques. By analyzing organic-rich deposits preserved within interdunal areas, this research aims to establish a robust temporal framework for shoreline evolution during the Late Pleistocene–Holocene. Attempts were also made to develop a linkage of the chronological data with recent tectonics affecting the coastal topography. The findings will contribute to refining regional sea-level curves and enhancing our understanding of coastal response to climatic and tectonic drivers in eastern India.
Study area
Coastline of Odisha extends for 480 km from its borders with Andhra Pradesh in the south to West Bengal in the north overlain with deltaic sediments of Subarnarekha and Mahanadi River systems. The study area stretching from Dhamara to Paradeep bounded by latitude 21°08’N and 20°12’N and longitude 86°20’E and 86°54’E is part of the Mahanadi composite delta complex (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 1
Location map of the study area
Geological and Geomorphological setup
The coastal plains of northern Odisha are shaped by the dynamic sedimentary interplay of three major river systems: the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani. The Mahanadi River primarily drains and distributes its sediment load across the districts of Bhadrak, Kendrapara, and Jagatsinghpur, overprinting earlier marine paleo-landforms. The Brahmani and Baitarani rivers form an interlacing distributary network, debouching into the Bay of Bengal near Dhamara and contributing to the northern sector of the composite Mahanadi delta complex. This delta exhibits an arcuate morphology with a pronounced northerly cuspate boundary [13], and has undergone multiple phases of progradation during the late quaternary [17, 18], obscuring relict geomorphic features such as paleochannels, paleo-beach ridges, and dune systems.
Geologically, the study area encompasses three principal formations: the Burhabalang, Bankigarh, and Kaimundi formations (Table 1) [19]. These units comprise both marine and fluviatile depositional facies, reflecting alternating dominance of coastal and fluvial processes. Tidal influences along the Odisha coast have played a significant role in the development of extensive tidal flats, with fine sediments delivered and redistributed by the Mahanadi River system. Aeolian activity has also contributed to the inland migration of beach sands, forming dune complexes that characterize the coastal geomorphology.
Table 1. Quaternary stratigraphy of the study area [19]
Epoch | Age | Formation | Lithology |
|---|---|---|---|
QUATERNARY | Early-late Holocene | Baitarani/Burhabalanga | Recent channel fill and flood plain deposit, Recent sand dunes, delta facies |
Older sand dunes | |||
Bankigarh/Kayan | Upper-lower delta facies, marine clay | ||
Local unconformity | |||
Late Pleistocene-Holocene | Kaimundi/Bhadrakh/Chandbali | Calcareous sandy clay | |
Older beach deposit/stable sand dunes | |||
Two distinct sets of dunal ridges are observed in the region. The older ridges, trending NNE–SSW, are low, oxidized, and compact, and exhibit a cross-cutting relationship with younger NNW–SSE trending ridges aligned parallel to the present shoreline. The older ridges, located approximately 15 km inland near Arasa and Baligaon, are associated with the Chandbali/Kaimundi formation. These ridges display a peneplained surface, shaped by prolonged fluvial reworking and anthropogenic modification. In contrast, the younger ridges, classified under the Baitarani/Burhabalanga formation and situated ~ 2 km inland, are less compact, structureless, and often contain heavy mineral-rich layers (≥ 2 cm thick) preserved in parallel bands. These younger ridges remain relatively undisturbed by human activity and retain their original geomorphic character.
Intervening low-lying areas between the ridges are occupied by mudflats and tidal flats composed of plastic clay inter-fingered with remobilized dune sand. The surface of these flats is capped by a thin, friable topsoil layer, underlain by a clay–silt–sand lithopackage enriched with organic clay, wood fragments, and marine molluscan remains. Targeted pitting in selected locations has been undertaken to recover carbon-rich material suitable for radiocarbon (C¹⁴) dating, enabling chronological reconstruction of shoreline evolution and paleoenvironmental conditions.
Materials and methods
Past sea-level reconstructions rely heavily on geomorphic and biological indicators that form in close relationship to tidal elevations. According to Khan et al. [20], reliable markers include beach ridges, tidal flats, mangrove peat horizons, and shell beds, each of which develops within a relatively narrow vertical range above or below mean tidal level. For example, mangrove roots are typically restricted to the upper intertidal zone, while molluscan shell horizons accumulate within tidal flats that are regularly inundated. Similarly, successive beach ridges preserve former shoreline positions created during phases of coastal progradation or regression. When such features are dated using radiocarbon or luminescence techniques, they provide essential chronological control for constructing relative sea-level curves [20]. In this present work, samples of organic rich matter were attempted to recover from the Holocene sediments through manually excavated pits on the beach-ridge complex. To record the elevation and the locations of the sampling points, the topographic survey maps prepared by Survey of India (SOI) and handheld GPS were used. The spatial positions of the samples were recalculated considering the MSL of India which is based on permanent Benchmark in Mumbai. Inter-tidal flats were specifically chosen for collection of organic rich samples as these are the areas where continuous inlets of sea water results in possible ground for vegetation growth as well as habitation of boring invertebrates such as Bivalves and Gastropods which subsequently perish with sediment cover to form marker horizon of organic rich material. Radiocarbon samples in the form of vegetative matter, marine molluscs and wood fragments were collected during field studies for radiocarbon (C¹⁴) dating purpose in Radiocarbon laboratory, National Centre for Excellence in Geoscience Research (NCEGR), Central Headquarters, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata. Wood samples were found in Chadeya, Malishai and Jamadherpur areas, whereas shell samples were obtained from Govindapur (Fig. 2), Paikarapara and vegetal matter was collected from Nayahat. Carbonaceous clay samples were collected from the pit dug at Bedakanthakandha (Fig. 1). The shell samples which include marine Pelecypod and Gastropods were ultrasonically cleaned and oven-dried, while wood samples underwent standard acid–alkali–acid pre-treatment to isolate cellulose. After conversion to benzene, samples were measured using Quantulus GCT 6220 V ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter following the procedures outlined by Gupta and Polach [21]. The ages were calibrated using Calib 8.1 [22]. Terrestrial samples were calibrated with the IntCal20 dataset [23], while marine samples were corrected for the Bay of Bengal reservoir offset (ΔR = − 195 ± 51 years, [24]) and calibrated against Marine20 [25]. Results were expressed as calibrated calendar ages at the 2σ confidence level and the final radiocarbon ages were reported as conventional years BP (relative to AD 1950). Potential sources of error, such as shell recrystallization or terrestrial carbon contamination, were minimized through rigorous pre-treatment and same-species selection. Temporal variations in ΔR over the Holocene were not modelled due to limited regional data, and a constant ΔR was assumed.
Sediment Samples were also collected from beach ridges for Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. Steel pipes were inserted horizontally in the deepest layer of the pits dug, through manual hammering and then capped. Precautionary measures were taken to avoid exposure of the sediments from sunlight using adequate covers. Quartz grains from the centre of the sediment core obtained from the pipes were then analysed by RisØ TL/OSL Reader (Model 20) in OSL laboratory, NCEGR, Geological Survey of India, Faridabad.
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Fig. 2
Field photographs of a one of the pit sections in the tidal flats in Govindapur; b sample recovered from the clayey silt horizon with marine shell samples; c, d cleaned shells; e litholog for the pit section
Results
A total of eleven ages were determined by radiocarbon dating methodology and two by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (Table 2).
Table 2. C14 age data generated from the study area of Odisha coast
Sl No | Sample no. | Material | Radiocarbon age in YBP (following method of Gupta and Polach, 1985 [21]) | 2σ Calibrated age Calib 8.1 (Cal BP) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 4/OM/Nayahat/21–22 | Organic matter | 8664 ± 40.1 | 9548–9656 |
2 | 5/wood/N.Purushottampur/21–22 | Wood | 11,036 ± 45 | 12,828–12,977 |
3 | 7/clay/Badakantakandha/21–22 | Organic rich clay | 21,577 ± 122.3 | 25,789–25,950 |
4 | 8/shell(G)/Badakantakandha/21–22 | Gastropods shells | 4149 ± 35 | 4177–4399 |
5 | 9/shell(P)/Badakantakandha/21–22 | Bivalve shells | 4503 ± 35 | 4327–4522 |
6 | 2/wood/Jamdherpur/Odisha/22–23 | Wood | 10,310 ± 43.5 | 11,942–12,430 |
7 | 3/shell/Govindapur/Odisha/22–23 | Shells | 7221 ± 38 | 7603–7781 |
8 | 4/shell/Paikarapara/Odisha/22–23 | Shells | 7665 ± 39 | 8033–8233 |
9 | 7/wood/Chhatarakandha/Odisha/22–23 | Wood | 7121 ± 37.7 | 7873–7977 |
10 | 10/wood/Chadheya/Odisha/22–23 | Wood | 7132 ± 38 | 7517–7687 |
11 | 9/wood/Malishai/Odisha/22–23 | Wood | 8409 ± 39.6 | 9329–9487 |
To investigate the lithological and chronological variability across the northern sector of the Odisha coast, a coast-perpendicular transect (Section X–Y) was established, extending approximately 14 km inland from the present shoreline (Fig. 3). This profile has been intended as a representative transect, because the actual sampling sites are not perfectly collinear. The section was constructed as a schematic cross-shore composite that aligns key geomorphic units and their relative elevations. The X–Y transect should be regarded as a generalized profile summarizing the spatial pattern of landforms and dated horizons, rather than a strict surveyed section through all sites.
At Malishai, located ~ 1 m above present mean sea level (MSL), wood fragments yielded a calibrated radiocarbon age of 8409 ± 39.6 years before present (YBP), indicating early Holocene shoreline activity. Further inland at Nayahat, an organic-rich layer intercepted at a depth of 3 m below MSL produced a slightly older radiocarbon age of 8664 ± 40.1 YBP. Adjacent to this site, near Baligaon, OSL dating of surface sand sediments yielded an age of 2400 ± 100 YBP.
Closer to the present coastline, shell horizons were identified within clayey silt layers at Paikarapara and Govindapur, at depths ranging between 0 and 0.5 m below MSL. These yielded radiocarbon ages of 7665 ± 39 YBP and 7221 ± 38 YBP respectively, marking mid-Holocene marine transgressive phases (Fig. 3).
Further inland, at Jamadherpur—approximately 37 km from the current shoreline—wood fragments recovered at 1.5 m below MSL were dated to 10,310 ± 43.5 YBP. At Purushottampur, similar wood material excavated from a plastic grey clay layer at 3.5 m depth yielded a radiocarbon age of 11,036 ± 45 YBP, representing one of the oldest Holocene transgressive signals in the study area. Additional wood samples from Chadeya were dated to 7132 ± 38 YBP, contributing to the mid-Holocene chronology.
In Badakantakandha carbonaceous clay intercepted at a depth of 2 m below MSL has yielded radiocarbon age of 21,577 ± 122.3YBP. In the same horizon, samples were collected from a layer with mixture of Pelycypod and Gastropod shells occurring at a depth of 1 m below. Both the genus yielded radiocarbon ages of 4503 ± 35YBP and 4149 ± 35YBP respectively.
In the inland dune fields of Arasa and Baligaon, OSL ages of 1712 ± 104 YBP (OD: 26%) and 2400 ± 100 YBP were obtained from sand ridges. These ridges exhibit signs of anthropogenic modification and reduced sediment compaction, suggesting recent reworking and exposure of older aeolian features.
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Fig. 3
Schematic representation of an E-W trending profile section XY of the Odisha coast
Discussion
Chronological data derived from four wood samples collected across the mudflats of Purushottampur (11,036 ± 45 YBP), Chadeya (7132 ± 38 YBP), Malishai (8409 ± 39.6 YBP), Jamadherpur (10,310 ± 43.5 YBP), and Chatarakandha (7121 ± 37.7 YBP) delineate a timeline of marine transgression and inundation during the early Holocene in the Odisha coast.
The presence of abundant Holocene molluscan assemblages within these paleo-tidal flats serves as a proxy for paleo-relative sea level (paleo-RSL) and indicates a dominantly regressive coastal regime. This regression trend is further substantiated by marine molluscan dating from Paikarapara (7665 ± 39 YBP), Govindapur (7221 ± 38 YBP), and Badakantakandha, where sea-level oscillations persisted between 4503 ± 35 YBP and 4149 ± 35 YBP for approximately four centuries.
The stratigraphic anomaly observed at Badakantakandha, where Late Pleistocene carbonaceous clay (21,577 ± 122 YBP) underlies Holocene marine shells (4503 ± 35 YBP), is best explained by tectonic reactivation rather than sedimentary reworking. This supports earlier interpretations of active faulting within the Mahanadi delta [26, 27]. The region is dissected by NNW–SSE and ENE–WSW trending transverse faults that segment the coastal plain into uplifted and subsided blocks. Abrupt distributary deflections near Dhamara further suggest neotectonic control on fluvial pathways. Younger OSL ages (1.7–2.4 ka) from older dune ridges may also record post-depositional reworking triggered by tectonically induced subsidence or shoreline adjustment. Together, these observations point to episodic Holocene tectonic activity superimposed on eustatic sea-level fluctuations, underlining the role of structural controls in shaping the Odisha coast.
Conclusion
This study underscores the complexity of Holocene sea-level dynamics along the eastern Indian coastline, with a particular focus on the Odisha coast. While global reconstructions such as the Waelbroeck et al. [28] and Lambeck et al.2014 [29] curves provide a robust framework for understanding eustatic changes driven by ice volume and deep-water temperature, regional records reveal significant deviations shaped by local tectonics and sedimentary processes as well as Global Isostatic Adjustment (GIA). The Odisha coast exhibits punctuated transgressive–regressive sequence, marked by episodic high stands at ~ 8.4 ka and ~ 7.1 ka and low stands between ~ 11 ka and ~ 4.1 ka, which do not align with global sea-level trends (Fig. 4). However, our findings are consistent with the Holocene sea-level curve proposed by Loveson & Nigam [15, based on extensive radiocarbon datasets from adjacent coastal regions (Fig. 5).
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Fig. 4
Sea level curve of Odisha coast in comparison with of the Global mean sea level curve
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Fig. 5
Sea level curve of Odisha coast in comparison with comprehensive curve generated by Loveson & Nigam [11]
The chronological data reveal a complex history of shoreline progradation, episodes of marine transgression, and sediment reworking along the Odisha coast spanning from the Late Pleistocene to the Late Holocene (Fig. 6). The results also point to episodic neotectonic activity that may have locally influenced shoreline positions during the late Holocene. The study also fills a significant gap in the paleo sea-level record of the East Indian coast which is essential for improving predictive models of coastal response to future sea-level rise and for informed sustainable coastal management strategies.
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Fig. 6
Sea level fluctuation along the Odisha coast on the basis of paleo-shoreline positions
Future research in this area should focus on continuous coring, high-resolution sedimentological studies, and an expanded chronological framework to refine the Holocene sea-level record and better evaluate the role of neotectonics in coastal evolution.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Director General, Geological Survey of India, along with the Additional Director General (PSS) and the Deputy Director General & NMHIV, for their support, encouragement, and for providing the necessary logistics and infrastructure to conduct this study. They also thank the scientists of the TL–OSL Laboratory, NCEGR, GSI, Faridabad, for their valuable assistance during laboratory analyses. They also thank the anonymous reviewers and the handling editor for their constructive comments and suggestions, which greatly helped to improve the quality of this manuscript.
Author contributions
Sudeshna Dey:Field Data collection, Writing Original draft, Methodology, Software, Arpita Roy Choudhury: Field Data collection, Methodology, Software, Bashab Nandan Mahanta: Revision, Interpretation, Methodology, Supervision, Sandip Nandy: Supervision.
Funding
The project has been funded by Geological Survey of India, Government of India under its Annual Plan.
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].
Code availability
Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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