Post-tensioned Jointed Structures to Resist Lateral Loads: A Review

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of post-tensioned (PT) precast jointed systems as a resilient structural solution for resisting lateral loads. These systems offer enhanced seismic performance by combining self-centering behavior with controlled energy dissipation, thus minimizing residual displacements and structural damage. The review traces the historical evolution of PT systems applied to frames, columns, walls, and bridge components, highlighting experimental and analytical investigations over the past three decades. Special emphasis is placed on the role of initial prestressing force, energy dissipation reinforcement, and joint detailing in improving seismic resilience. The paper also explores fragility analyses that evaluate the probability of exceeding specific damage states under varying drift demands. Comparisons with conventional monolithic systems demonstrate the superior recentering and stiffness retention capabilities of PT joints. Challenges such as limited hysteretic energy dissipation, toe crushing, and compatibility with seismic code provisions are addressed through the integration of external dampers, steel jacketing, and hybrid joint designs. Additionally, recent innovations such as embedded damping cores, friction devices, and hybrid rocking-wall systems are examined for their potential to improve performance in moderate to high seismic zones. The review concludes with a critical discussion of international code provisions and identifies gaps in existing standards that hinder broader implementation. Recommendations are made to guide future research toward developing practical, codified solutions for PT systems with consistent seismic performance.

Background

Conventional monolithic structures’ response under severe earthquake conditions always exhibits large inelastic deformations resulting in substantial residual displacements and extensive structural damage due to lateral forces. As a result of such damage to a structure in an urban setting, closure is expected till large repair works or even a complete replacement is carried out. More than hundred traditional monolithic bridges in Japan were demolished after 1995 Kobe earthquake because of permanent residual top displacement angles that exceeded 1.50% (Ou et al., 2010). A construction procedure consists of assemblage of precast elements enhanced accelerated bridge construction (ABC system) that would be preferably constructed in urban settings where traffic control for large periods cannot be permitted. In concrete structures, employing precast components for both the substructure and superstructure can decrease the time required for construction, and the behavior of an ABC system can be controlled by the assemblage method of its elements. Thus, joints at footing–column and beam–column are supposed to be significantly ductile to achieve the required resiliency under the effect of severe lateral loads. Researchers at The National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), 2014, developed various concepts for construction of connections in ABC system such as, member socket, coupler, grouted duct, pocket, and hybrid connections. Main design purpose is to emulate the conventional monolithic reinforced concrete bridge bents behavior during an earthquake. This means that the developed piers with the proposed construction method should be detailed and designed to match at least the strength and ductility that can be achieved by the cast-in-place bridge piers. Thus, great attention must be taken when designing and detailing the critical sections of the jointed structures. Assemblage of precast elements using a well-designed unbonded post-tensioning (PT) system achieved superior seismic response in terms of low damage, high effective stiffness, less stiffness degradation and minimal residual displacement corresponding to reasonable dissipated energy that is controlled by the ratio of the mild reinforcement across the joints through elements if bonded or partially unbonded as shown in Fig. 1 (Larkin et al., 2012a; Dina Ors, 2019; Fathi et al., 2021; Priesly & Macrae, 1996; Yamashita & Sanders, 2009a).

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Fig. 1

Comparison between hysteretic behavior of monolithic and post-tensioned joints

This study aims to track the advances of the post-tensioned precast systems to resist lateral loads. The proposed system includes various parameters that differ from one design demand to another including the layout of the post-tensioning system and mild reinforcement ratio across the joints. Most researchers experimentally tested the proposed construction method and compared its response with the conventional monolithic construction method in terms of damage level, initial stiffness, dissipated energy, and self-centering capability. Then, this study manifests the remarkable response of the design codes to develop new design methods matching the excessive advances in research and industry starting from the performance-based design (PBD) methods.

Structural Concept

In the aim to promote resilient structures against lateral loads, the proposed performance after the effect of lateral loads should be defined and taken into consideration at both design and construction stages. All current design codes require the ductile behavior of the structures and to resist any seismic action in terms of stiffness, lateral strength and corresponding drift. This can be achieved by using predefined locations of the plastic hinges and increasing the degree of indeterminacy to enhance the lateral strength and delay failure under the effect of the applied lateral loads. This can be achieved by following the concept of strong column–weak beam moment resisting frames that lead to the required ductile behavior as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. Jointed construction is presented in column-beam or/and column-footing connections as precast segments assembled by post-tensioning tendons across the joints. Thus, precast prestressed jointed connections will guarantee the local nonlinearity as plastic behavior at the joints ensuring the linear elastic behavior in members in-between the two end joints of each member at the level of the target lateral displacement. This construction strategy depends on the controlled rocking between the precast members, hence nonlinear rotation while using unbonded post-tensioned (PT) steel strands exerts counteracting moment to recenter the members into their original positions with minimal residual lateral displacements (Priesly & Macrae, 1996).

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Fig. 2

Different failure mechanisms under the effect of lateral loads

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Fig. 3

Load–delta response in both cases of ductile and non-ductile behavior

Performance Metrics: Self-Centering and Energy Dissipation

Self-centering capability is one of the major parameters that is strongly required in the design of the proposed construction method represented in the self-centering ratio (λ). Self-centering of the jointed structure is responsible of the minimal residual displacement corresponding to minimal damage after any earthquake event (e.g., (Failed, 2007; Hewes, 2013 Ou et al. 2007; Mohamed et al., 2011). In jointed structures, precast elements are connected by unbonded post-tensioning tendons passing through a duct cast in the segments during fabrication (Eberhard et al., 2013).

The precast components will sway during seismic activity and return to their original position once the shaking stops due to the restoring force applied by the post-tensioning; thus, the potential benefits of using precast post-tensioned structural elements in moderate and high seismic zones as self-centering system. The proposed construction method achieved superior recentering capabilities compared to same monolithic configurations when calculating the recentering capability as the proportion of the recentering moment to the resisting moment. Recentering moment is done by the prestressing force, and the gravity loads while the resisting moment is done by the mild steel bars across the jointed connection as shown in Eq. 1 and Fig. 4, where αD is the distance from column cross section center to the centroid of the concrete compression area and βD is the distance from centroid of the mild steel bars to the center of concrete compression area (Dhakal et al., 2014; Dina Ors, 2019). Also, the residual displacement is highly affected by the proposed construction method when compared to the conventional monolithic structures as shown in Fig. 5:

1

$${\lambda }_{\text{recentering}}=\frac{M_{\text{recentering}}}{M_{\text{resisting}}}=\frac{\left(P_{\text{pt}}+P_{\text{col}.}\right).\propto D}{\left(P_s\right).\beta D}.$$

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Fig. 4

Resisting and recentering moment in PT connections (Dina Ors, 2019; Fathi et al., 2021)

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Fig. 5

Comparison between the conventional and unbonded post-tensioned precast jointed connections (Kurama et al., 2018)

Initial post-tensioning force is the main factor that controls the ability of the PT joint to recenter, hence the level of damage at the end of the seismic event. Ors et al., (2021) conducted fragility analysis to investigate the effect of the level of the initial post-tensioning level taking the maximum drift ratio as the design demand and damage levels ranged from; onset of cracking as Damage State-1 (DS-1) followed by yield of mild reinforcement (DS-2), then, major cracks at plastic hinge zone as ultimate base shear (DS-3) and finally failure at 85% of the ultimate loading level (DS-4). Definition of all damage states and the required repair action after each stage is summarized in Table 1. Fragility curves for the specimens showing the probability of exceeding various damage states (Table 1) as a function of drift ratio. The vertical axis represents the probability of exceedance, while the horizontal axis denotes the drift ratio (%), the ratio between the lateral displacement at the top of the bridge bent and pier height from the top of the footing (Ebid et al., 2024a, 2024b; Ors et al., 2015, 2023, 2024; Afifi et al., 2023; Mahdi et al., 2024; Abdelhamid et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2011, 2014; Dhakal et al., 2014; Filiatrault et al., 2004; Behforooz et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2016; Onyelowe et al., 2025).

Table 1. Damage states and required repair after each damage state (Ors et al., 2021; Fathi et al., 2021)

Damage state	Description and identification criteria	Possible recommended action
DS-1 slight damage	Onset of concrete cracking: • minor cracks, which were flexural cracks perpendicular to the column axis developed in regions close to the specimen foundation	• Cosmetic repair and crack injection
DS-2 operational	• Yield of main longitudinal reinforcement	• Minor strengthening works
DS-3 life safety	Ultimate base shear: • Major cracks in concrete close to foundation crushed	• Major strengthening works (jackets of FRP wrapping)
DS-4 collapse prevention	Failure (85% of ultimate load): • confining stirrups expanded outward and reinforcing bars buckled locally	• Element replacement

Figure 6 shows a comparison between the fragility curves of a two group of post-tensioned column-footing connections with prestressing level of $15\%A_g{f}_c^{\prime }$ and $30\%A_g{f}_c^{\prime }$, where $A_g$ is the column gross area and $f_c^{\prime }$ is the concrete characteristic compressive strength. To evaluate the fragility response at varying top displacement ratios in both scenarios, the vertical dashed line marking a drift ratio of 5% intersects the fragility curves to illustrate the probability of exceeding a particular damage state. Joints with higher PT level clearly show less probability of exceedance damage, states DS-3 and DS-4 with no possibility of DS-1 and DS2 occurring in both cases. Also, joints with higher PT level (PS30) show about 70% probability of exceedance of damage state (DS-3), while joints with less post-tensioning level (PS15) achieve about 85% probability of exceedance of same damage state, finally piers (PS30) show probability of exceedance 5% of damage state four (DS-4), while piers with less post-tensioning achieve 65% probability of the same damage state. This ensures that the level of post-tension significantly affects the final damage level, if any (Hussein et al., 2017; AASHTO & AASHTO LRFD, 2017; Euro-code-2, 2004; Ors et al., 2025; Lin et al., 2013; Ren et al., 2015).

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Fig. 6

Comparison between fragility curves for joints with different post-tensioning level (Ors et al., 2021; Fathi et al., 2021)

Resilient structures that can maintain their function after a seismic event is the most recommended design demand through the last few decades to avoid the replacement of the structural elements due to severe damage. Priesly and Macrae, (1996), Davis et al. (2012), Mahrenholtz (2012), Kim et al. (2012),  Barbachyn et al. (2016), started achieving this purpose by developing the basis of the precast post-tensioned joints. Researchers developed a beam-to-column connection assembled by unbonded post-tensioned tendons through the intersecting beam as interior and exterior joints. At the end of the cyclic loading test, both connections experienced minor cracks and both connections experienced low damage represented in spalling of concrete cover at beam toes with no significant damage, measured lateral capacity was more than the theoretical values by 3 and 8.5% and the corresponding lateral drift was more than the conventional connections by 40 and 100%, respectively. Authors ensured that the hysteretic behavior depends on the initial prestressing force applied in the installed tendons. Also, Priestley et al., found that this kind of joint should follow conservative requirement against shear stresses as the spirals at the developed connection yielded at the end of the test. Also, hysteretic behavior of both constructed joints experienced lack of dissipated energy when compared to the monolithic joints (Haraldsson et al., 2013).

Post-tension systems also extended to be used in reinforced concrete shear walls because of the high resiliency against the applied lateral loads. Rahman and Restrepo (2000) and Kurama et al., (2018) developed the jointed connections at reinforced concrete wall to footing connections. Post-tensioned tendons were located at the points of minimum strains to allow maximum rotation before reaching the elastic limit under the applied gravity loads and the design lateral drift. Flat ducts were used to allow multiple tendons in the same duct at one-third and two-thirds of the section depth. The damage was minor and limited to cosmetic damage and manifested itself as spalling of the concrete cover at the ends of the walls at large drifts as shown in Fig. 7a. Energy dissipation was enhanced using mild reinforcement across the joint that effectively increased the dissipated energy by 14% when compared to the same specimen with no dissipated energy rebars achieving almost no residual displacement as shown in Fig. 7b.

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Fig. 7

Post-tensioned precast wall configurations, damage, and hysteretic Response (Rahman & Restrepo, 2000)

Lateral load response of the post-tensioned precast column–footing joint was investigated (Nishiyama & Watanabe, 2003; Rahman & Restrepo, 2000). Applied cyclic loading tests were carried out on 14 test units consisted of the lower connection of bridge pier, column had a square solid section and assembled using four prestressed strands at column section varying the assemblage method, post-tensioning strands bond condition and axial load level were investigated. The experimental investigation showed that hysteretic energy dissipation of prestressed units is less than traditional precast units under low axial load level. Also ungrouted units showed smaller ductility than the grouted units because the ungrouted tendons did not work as compressive reinforcement.

The same concept of post-tensioning precast elements was applied to assemble hollow core segmental bridge bents with boded and unbonded tendons. Researchers found that shear could transfer across joints even when no energy dissipation rebar is used, while adding energy dissipation rebar across the joints reduced the joint opening problem, hence delaying damage at the bottom segment (Ou et al., 2006; Minehiro & Fumio, 2003; Hong yi et al., 2008; Ou & Lee, 2006). Applied cyclic loading on a set of bridge bents of solid rectangular section assembled with post-tensioning system varying the tendons bond condition and the mild reinforcement across the joints. Piers proved the same functionality of traditional monolithic bridge bents with less damage as no plastic hinges were formed. Also, residual displacement after an earthquake is less than monolithic system for bonded and unbonded tendons. Energy dissipation bars delayed joint opening and increased strength and hysteretic energy. Cohagen et al., (2008) and G. J. p. a. W. Z. q., (2008), investigated the effect of variable initial prestressing force on the response of a precast concrete bridge column to cap-beam connection. Post-tensioned tendons were distributed around the circular column perimeter. By applying both vertical and cyclic loads at the same time, researchers discovered that maintaining the initial prestressing tendons within the proportional limit enhances the ability of the bridge bent to return to its original position. Also, an increase in the post-tensioning force led to a slight increase in damage level at high top displacement ratios. Yamashita and Sanders, (2009a) conducted parametric study using a validated finite element model to investigate the effect of initial prestress, layout and the applied gravity load on the cyclic load response of each configuration. All models showed good ductility and limited damage that can be easily repaired. Prestressed strands away from column centroid slipped and popped out, 17% of used strands were at column centroid which contributed to reducing residual displacement (Yamashita & Sanders, 2009a).

Another significant contribution of the post-tensioned shear walls is retrofitting the already existing structures. Using dual system consists of reinforced concrete frame and shear wall results in almost uniform distribution of drift along the frame height and eliminating the inter-story drift. Proposed construction maintains ductility and does not experience severe damage, thus replacement after an earthquake event. Figure 8 illustrates the hysteretic behavior of a retrofitted frame utilizing either a monolithic or post-tensioned precast recentering shear wall. The combined hysteretic behavior results in higher levels of lateral loads and damping when compared to the monolithic wall retrofitting system as shown in Fig. 8 Failed (2007). Recommends using the proposed rocking/dissipating system as a new design solution based on a predefined performance in terms of uniform displacement distribution and limited damage (Cohagen et al., 2008).

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Fig. 8

Comparison of retrofit intervention having either a monolithic wall or advanced rocking wall (Marriott et al., 2007; Failed, 2007)

Challenges of PT Precast Joints

Among all these advantages of minimal residual displacement and enhanced initial stiffness and lateral strength, three key elements must be considered when creating the proposed dissipated/rocking system. First, lack of hysteretic dissipated energy, second large actual lateral displacement exceeding the design demand, Third, compression damage at toes presented as spalling of concrete cover without any crushing of the concrete core if concrete is not sufficiently confined due to rocking of precast elements (Farrow & Kurama, 2003; Priesly & Macrae, 1996; Seo & Sause, 2005; Wang et al., 2023). All these concerns can be controlled by applying passive source of energy dissipation, the most common energy dissipator is the mild reinforcement passing across the reinforced concrete elements and protecting concrete toes using material with superior characteristics. Fig. 9 presents using bonded/partially bonded mild reinforcement in both cases of beam–column and footing–column joints. These connections using post-tensioned strands in addition to steel reinforcement is often referred to as “hybrid” connections as shown in Fig. 9. The energy dissipated during an earthquake is a measure of effective damping during an earthquake. It can be calculated as the area inside the force–displacement hysteretic response of the proposed jointed structure. It should be calculated per cycle then the summation of all cycles produces the cumulative dissipated energy during the earthquake event as shown in Eq. 2 and Fig. 10.

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Fig. 9

Example of unbonded post-tensioned connections using energy dissipation mild reinforcement (Kurama et al., 2018)

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Fig. 10

Example of energy dissipation calculations for one cycle (Dina Ors, 2019; Fathi et al., 2021)

To further investigate the sensitivity to specific damage states when using dissipators, vulnerability of post-tensioned joints having mild reinforcement across joint had been compared with same joint without using energy dissipation rebars by Ors et al., (2021) and Fathi et al., (2021) based on the same damage states previously summarized in Table 1 and taking drift ratio is the design demand. The developed fragility analysis ensured the delay of damage at all drift ratios. Figure 11 compares two sets of the fragility curves of post-tensioned joints with the same initial prestressing force with and without energy dissipation rebar. The vertical dotted line on the graph shows that at the same drift ratio of 5%, joints with energy dissipation rebar always have less probability of damage exceedance at all damage levels. Thus, using energy dissipation rebar and/or devices is highly recommended to delay damage and control the maximum drift achieved at the end of any seismic event (Canakci, 2007; Dina Ors, 2019; Fathi et al., 2021; Priesly & Macrae, 1996; Wang et al., 2023):

2

$${\lambda }_{\text{recentering}}=\frac{M_{\text{recentering}}}{M_{\text{resisting}}}=\frac{\left(P_{\text{pt}}+P_{\text{col}.}\right).\propto D}{\left(P_s\right).\beta D}.$$

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Fig. 11

Comparison between fragility curves for joints with and without energy dissipation rebars (Ors et al. 2021; Fathi et al., 2021)

Applying external and accessible damping devices allows for easy maintenance and even replacement if needed after an earthquake event. Dogu & Menkulasi, 2020; Morgan and Kurama, (2004) introduced a novel friction damper for unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete moment frames, targeting beam–column joints where controlled gap opening occurs under seismic loads. Their experimental program comprised large-scale beam–column sub-assemblages (some equipped with prototype friction dampers and others without) subjected to reversed quasi-static cyclic loading. The dampers were strategically placed at selected joints, leveraging joint gap opening to generate sliding friction and absorbing seismic energy. Main findings of this research include enhanced energy dissipation: addition of friction dampers significantly boosted energy dissipation at beam ends through frictional sliding across gap openings, without undermining self-centering capabilities of the post-tensioned system. Preserved self-centering: despite increased energy dissipation, all damper-equipped frames retained their ability to self-center, with minimal residual drift observed post-cycling. Correlation with normal force: increasing damper normal force enhanced frictional resistance and energy dissipation, though with diminishing returns beyond a certain load threshold. And interaction with PT force: raising the beam’s PT force improved lateral stiffness and peak strength up to the yield point of the strands; the damper maintained effective performance across PT force levels. Also, significant increase of energy dissipation is achieved in joint with dampers when compared to the joints with no dampers as shown in Fig. 12.

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Fig. 12

Failure and corresponding hysteretic response of the PT joint with external damper (Morgen et al., 2004; Morgan & Kurama, 2004)

In the aim of avoiding damage of the reinforced concrete elements, researchers developed confining strategy to protect the inaccessible zones of the connected reinforced concrete members from the localized damage during any seismic action (Morgan & Kurama, 2004; Wang et al., 2023). Developed connections confined with steel jackets at the intersection zone using bolted or welded mild reinforcement as energy dissipators and the unbonded post-tensioned tendons extended through the detailed joint as shown in Fig. 13. Welded energy dissipation rebar to the steel jacket prevented slippage and enhanced shear strength. The results obtained indicate and measure the performance attained regarding energy dissipation and self-centering ability, ease of manufacturing and repair processes, as well as the reliability of load-bearing capacity. Authors concluded that thickness of steel plates of 12 mm with a length of 300 mm is sufficient to achieve the required confinement.

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Fig. 13

Precast prestressed beam–column joint. H. (Wang et al., 2019)

An innovative post-tensioned hybrid joint provided by a friction energy dissipation device was developed by Wang et al. (2019) and Feng et al., (2021). This energy dissipator considered the previous research confinement with steel jackets adding a short steel member that is connected to the hybrid beam with high-strength bolts then all assembled using post-tensioning tendons to apply self-centering capabilities as shown in Fig. 14. Damage upon cyclic loading of the developed connection occurred at the steel flanges with no damage in the reinforced concrete elements till drift ratio of 1.5%, damage propagation indicated local buckling and yield in the steel flanges corresponding to a significant increase in energy dissipation with remarkable self-centering capabilities. The localized damage in steel flanges can be avoided by increasing thickness of steel flanges. Also, the steel beams replacement is easy and accessible if needed after an earthquake event. All developed strategies succeeded in preventing the crushing of concrete due to rocking during the seismic action, maintaining the advantage of self-centering as improving the ability to withstand lateral loads. Additionally, Feng et al., (2021); Moussa et al., 2024) developed a new generation of energy dissipation sources as an additional embedded column inside the core of bridge piers with segmental hollow section. Both the main rocking system and the damping core column are unbonded post-tensioned precast columns. Main rocking system of post-tensioned precast segments is shown in Fig. 15a and the core column with both post-tension tendons and mild reinforcement across the joints are depicted in Fig. 15b, while the composite column is illustrated in Fig. 15c. This system is strongly recommended in moderate to high seismic zones as the interaction between the main column and the core column does not take place until the main system is subjected to lateral loads.

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Fig. 14

Post-tensioned hybrid beam–column connection (Feng et al., 2021)

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Fig. 15

Post-tensioned precast unit to embed in the column hollow section (Moussa et al., 2024)

To validate the proposed construction method, researchers experimentally tested the developed bridge piers varying the ratio of the mild reinforcement as energy dissipators under the effect of cyclic loading. Test results ensured that the core column achieved the required excess of dissipated energy, keeping the advantage of the self-centering capabilities. Authors recommended using 6% reinforcement ratio as energy dissipators resulting in 60% increase in system lateral capacity. The proposed system also protected the main rocking system from localized damage during the cyclical loading (Sideris et al., 2014; Dawood et al., 2012; Mahrenholtz, 2012; Holden and Mander, 2003; Hamahara et al., 2007; Dawood, 2010; Pang et al., 2008; Mustafa Mashal, 2014; Larkin et al., 2012b; Nikbakht & Khalim, 2013; Kim et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2011; Ou, 2007; Booker, 2008; Hieber et al., 2005; Veletzos et al., 2006; Nigel & Hewes, 2002; Li et al., 2008).

Chronological Review of the Last Decade

Over the past decade, significant advancements have been made in the development, experimental validation, and numerical modeling of post-tensioned (PT) precast concrete systems aimed at enhancing structural resilience under lateral loading. This section provides a chronological synthesis of key research contributions between 2015 and 2025, capturing the evolving understanding of self-centering behavior, energy dissipation mechanisms, connection detailing, and code development related to PT systems. Studies included span various structural components such as shear walls, beam–column joints, and rocking columns and reflect global efforts to improve seismic performance through hybrid designs, innovative damping strategies, and robust analytical frameworks. By organizing the literature in chronological order, this review highlights emerging trends, identifies critical breakthroughs, and contextualizes the shift from traditional monolithic systems to modern precast PT alternatives. The aim is to offer a clear timeline of research progression that informs future investigations and supports the codification of PT technologies in performance-based seismic design.

References	Methodology	Main findings
Moussa et al., (2024); Dong et al., (2025)	Proposes a unique prefabricated shear wall with vertical double‑row spherical cavities and simplified panel-to-middle connection to beautify seismic ordinary overall performance Experimental assessments below cyclic loading: seismic ordinary overall performance measured; compared with conventional walls	The progressive hollow section wall improved the dissipation of energy and seismic resilience, improved ductility and decreased the damage as compared to conventional prefabricated walls
Dong et al., (2025) Rathod, et al., (2024)	This paper reviews the seismic response of various slab systems, including flat slabs and post-tensioned slabs, with and without lateral load-resisting systems Authors depend on the results of the validation of a finite element model using SAFE and ETABS of specimens in previous studies. Main variables were story displacement, base shear, stiffness of connections, and time period. The static and dynamic response were monitored and the provisions of the ACI and IS codes	- Flay slabs with spans of more than 6 m are more economic if post-tensioned - Slab–column connections are vulnerable to punching shear, requiring additional LLRS (lateral load-resisting system) to counter seismic and wind loads - Steel bracing systems have an advantage over RCC bracing, and dynamic analysis is crucial for high-rise structures
Srikanth and Borghate, (2024); Pekgokgoz and Yakut, (2024)	- Authors conducted an experimental investigation using full size column-beam connection under the effect of cyclic loading - Authors followed the provisions of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee when simulating earthquake effects - Tests consisted of three different connection types: dowel connection (DC), post-tensioning (PT), and post-tensioning with steel springs (PTS)	- Conventional dowel connections (DC) in precast concrete structures are vulnerable to shear failure and exhibit insufficient resistance to overturning moments under seismic loading - The proposed post-tensioned spring (PTS) connection, integrating post-tensioning tendons with steel springs, is capable of dissipating roughly one-third of the energy imparted to the joint, thereby mitigating structural damage - Compared to other specimens, the PTS system demonstrates significantly reduced damage at the column–foundation and column–beam interfaces, indicating improved performance under dynamic loading conditions such as earthquakes
Pekgokgoz and Yakut, (2024); Afifi et al., (2023)	Authors conducted an extensive review of current bridge pier construction methods, decision-making tools, and relevant project variables - Compiled a list of common construction techniques (e.g., cast-in-place, precast, drilled shafts, cofferdams) - Defined key decision criteria such as soil condition, water depth, construction duration, cost, safety, and environmental impact - Applied methods such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and TOPSIS to rank techniques based on weighted criteria. Expert input was used to assign weights to each criterion - Designed and implemented a Decision Support System (DSS) with a user-friendly interface - Inputs include site conditions and project priorities; outputs include ranked construction techniques with rationale - Tested the DSS using real-world bridge pier case studies. Compared system recommendations with actual construction decisions	- Construction time controlled the previous selection, not because it is the most important factor, but because it has the widest performance evaluation range for different alternatives - Considering equal importance weights for all criteria, both monolithic and post-tension techniques shared the first rank of optimum construction technique - The developed DSS is not sensitive to cost or ductility factors, while it is affected by risk, maintainability, constructability and time only when their relative weights are about 14% - The impact of lateral stiffness on the optimum construction method appears when its relative importance is 20 and 45% - Since all alternatives must be designed to meet the code requirement regarding safety and serviceability, then it is expected to use low importance weighs for lateral stiffness and ductility as they both already satisfy the requirements and their impotence weights for extra enhancement in bridge behavior beyond the requirements - The results of the first phase showed that the criterion with highest weight is not necessary to control the selection, especially if it has a narrow performance evaluation range
Shen et al., (2023)	This study examines the application of unbonded post-tensioned bars in reinforced concrete bridge piers to enhance their self-centering capacity and resistance to lateral loads. Experimental investigations were conducted on precast post-tensioned (PT) bridge piers using cantilever test setup, incorporating an auxiliary reaction frame. The specimens were subjected to cyclic loading with progressively increasing drift ratios Numerical simulations were performed using OpenSees to replicate the structural behavior of the piers. The accuracy of the numerical models was confirmed through comparison with experimental findings	The three modified PRC piers (PRC + ST, PRC + UHPC, and PRC + ECC) enhanced ductility and sustained less damage compared to the standard PRC pier - PRC + ST and PRC + UHPC showed negligible damage and retained load-bearing capacity up to a drift level of 6.0%, whereas PRC + ECC displayed improved performance up to failure at a drift of 4.1% - Numerical analyses highlighted the critical role of accounting for post-tensioning force losses in accurately simulating the structural response of the piers
Failed, (2023a)	This paper presents a critical review of the seismic performance of precast concrete buildings, with particular attention to ductile frame connections, shear wall systems, and diaphragm slab panel joints responsible for lateral load resistance The review outlines the chronological advancement of precast concrete construction methods, relevant design codes, and standards. It synthesizes findings from experimental research, analytical studies, and numerical simulations to provide a comprehensive understanding of the seismic behavior of these structural systems	- A key challenge in precast concrete buildings is the inadequate detailing of connections and insufficient provisions for ductile behavior - The effectiveness of lateral load resistance in these structures largely depends on the performance of ductile frame connections, shear wall systems, and diaphragm slab panel joints - Establishing and refining region-specific design codes and construction practices is vital to ensure structural safety and prevent catastrophic failures during seismic events
Failed, (2023b)	The seismic performance of unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete walls is investigated through both experimental and numerical approaches, aiming to evaluate their effectiveness as lateral load-resisting systems in low-rise buildings. The experimental program involved cyclic loading tests on three wall specimens to characterize their seismic response and establish damage limit states The results were utilized to calibrate a numerical model using the Pinching4 material model within the OpenSees framework. The validated model was then employed to conduct seismic performance assessments on an archetype low-rise building using the FEMA P695 ground motion set	- The seismic performance of unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete walls was evaluated using both experimental testing and numerical simulation - The results demonstrated that the system is a viable lateral force-resisting solution for low-rise buildings, offering adequate seismic capacity - Fragility curves were developed corresponding to the observed damage states in the tested wall specimens, providing a probabilistic measure of performance under seismic loading
Tiwari et al., (2023)	This paper presents the lateral response of post-tensioned reinforced concrete (RC PT) shear walls in buildings. It encompasses an evaluation of earlier analytical and numerical studies, design methodologies, and relevant international standards. The review analyzes modeling approaches previously adopted and identifies key parameters influencing structural performance, concluding with a summary of findings and suggestions for future research directions	• There is a need to develop efficient hybrid macro models that can be seamlessly incorporated into different building frame systems for analysis and design purposes • Further fragility analyses are required for various configurations of post-tensioned (PT) shear walls—both standalone and integrated—under diverse collapse criteria • Additional research on integrated PT shear walls is essential to support code development. This includes a deeper understanding of system interactions across different floors, columns, and beam layouts • Current international design codes are limited and mainly address coupled and uncoupled walls. Therefore, extensive parametric studies are needed to enhance guidelines, especially for PT walls with external energy dissipators, PreWEC systems, and coupled wall configurations • Detailed investigations are necessary to assess and quantify damage in various PT shear wall setups, both isolated and integrated into structural systems • More research is needed to optimize the placement and number of multiple rocking segments used to mitigate higher-mode effects in PT wall systems
Bao et al., (2022) and Koodiani et al., (2023)	The overall methodology combined rigorous data collection, multi-model comparison, statistical validation, and interpretability techniques to build a reliable and explainable predictive framework for nonlinear parameters in RC columns The research targeted three key nonlinear modeling parameters: effective stiffness, plastic hinge length, and curvature ductility. To predict these parameters, the authors implemented and compared several ML algorithms, including Random Forest, Gradient Boosting Machines, Artificial Neural Networks, Support Vector Machines, and Linear Regression (used as a baseline). Each model was trained and validated using k-fold cross-validation to ensure generalizability and robustness. Model performance was assessed based on standard metrics such as the coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean square error (RMSE) Furthermore, the study included a feature importance and sensitivity analysis using permutation importance methods. This analysis was conducted to determine which input features had the greatest influence on each target parameter, helping to improve model interpretability and guide future data collection efforts	- Machine Learning models, especially Random Forest and Gradient Boosting, significantly outperformed traditional regression methods in predicting nonlinear parameters - The models provided accurate, data-driven estimates of effective stiffness and curvature ductility, reducing reliance on empirical assumptions - Feature importance analysis showed that axial load ratio, reinforcement ratio, and concrete strength are among the most critical factors - The study confirms that ML tools can serve as valuable supplements to traditional modeling techniques in seismic performance evaluation of RC columns - However, the authors acknowledge the need for expanded datasets and mechanically interpretable frameworks to ensure broader applicability in engineering design
Bao et al., (2022); Alshaikh et al., (2022)	-Researchers quantify the effect of post-tensioned bars on the lateral resisting capacities of precast concrete shear walls - Computational modeling using various material models (KCC, CDP, Winfrith) for 2D wall under pushover analysis - Validation of models against experimental findings - Application of post-tensioned modeling approach to 3D wall for predicting structural responses - Use of well-validated finite element models to estimate effects of post-tensioned bars on lateral load capacity	- The developed models were validated against the peak strength of both two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) post-tensioned (PT) shear walls. Among them, the Winfrith model provided the most accurate predictions, owing to its superior ability to capture crack location and dimensions. Furthermore, it effectively identified the failure zones in concrete that closely matched experimental observations and accurately located regions of maximum flexural stress in the reinforcing bars - The strain rate had a negligible effect on the force–displacement response for the KCC and CDP models. In contrast, the Winfrith model exhibited sensitivity to strain rate, with a value of RATE = 1 yielding the most appropriate results for 2D wall simulations. For 3D walls, all three models showed a noticeable dependence on strain rate, with the Winfrith model again producing reliable predictions when RATE = 1 was used. A mesh size of 25 mm and the element formulation ELFORM = 1 were found to be optimal for capturing peak load behavior while maintaining computational efficiency and were adopted for the numerical analyses - The number of post-tensioning tendons had the most significant impact on lateral load-bearing capacity, whereas the yield strength of the tendons had a minimal influence in the case of PT 2D walls. Based on the simulation results, the configuration comprising eight tendons (2X4Y), a tendon diameter of 15.2 mm, and a yield strength of fy = 1860 MPa was identified as optimal for effectively enhancing the lateral strength capacity of PT 3D walls
Alshaikh et al., (2022); Bedriñana et al., (2022)	This paper reviews advancements in enhancing the progressive collapse resistance of precast concrete structures but does not specifically cover post-tensioned precast jointed structures The methodology involved a comprehensive review of existing literature on enhancing precast concrete structures’ progressive collapse resistance, focusing on strengthened schemes of beam–column and beam–column–slab connections	- Numerous innovative precast connections have been developed in recent years, many of which have demonstrated satisfactory performance in resisting progressive collapse. Although several of these strengthened schemes resulted in a reduction in moment capacity demand (MCD) compared to traditional monolithic connections, they still exhibited improved ultimate load capacities. This enhancement enables precast concrete (PC) structures to resist or mitigate progressive collapse by effectively redistributing loads - However, many of the proposed connection systems are complex and require skilled labor for proper installation. Additionally, the construction of several wet connection types can be time-consuming, with some requiring temporary supports or scaffolding during assembly. Notably, the fabrication and installation costs associated with these advanced connection systems remain largely unaddressed in existing literature - Regarding connection types, welded dry connections are generally considered unsuitable in scenarios involving progressive collapse, due to their limited ability to maintain continuity and integrity under extreme conditions. In contrast, wet precast connections have consistently demonstrated superior performance by enhancing structural continuity, which in turn increases resistance to progressive collapse - From a numerical modeling perspective, finite element method (FEM)-based simulations have shown considerable advantages in progressive collapse analysis, particularly due to the impracticality of full-scale physical testing. FEM facilitates detailed examination of structural behavior and failure mechanisms, including dynamic effects associated with sudden column removal. Advanced commercial software packages such as LS-DYNA and ABAQUS have been effectively employed to simulate the performance of PC structures, offering enhanced accuracy and predictive reliability
Bedriñana et al., (2022); Mohammed et al., (2021)	- Experimental evaluation of the seismic performance of unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete walls with internal and external dampers - Experimental investigation on half-scale, unbonded, post-tensioning, precast concrete walls under the effect of reversed cyclic loads. As Quasi-static, displacement-controlled loads applied until significant strength reduction - Main variables were damper types (mild steel reinforcement and external replaceable hysteretic dampers), confinement details at boundary elements, Steel fibers mixed into concrete of one specimen, Additional axial load applied before lateral loading - Quasi-static, displacement-controlled loads applied until significant strength reduction	- Unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete walls sustained drifts above 3% while maintaining lateral strength and stability - External dampers outperformed internal dampers, allowing for higher drifts with less damage and better energy dissipation - External replaceable dampers provided higher performance and a post-earthquake recovery for these walls
Kalliontzis and Sritharan, (2021) and Liu et al., (2022)	This study explores the use of machine learning (ML) techniques to predict the direct shear strength of precast concrete joints, aiming to offer a more accurate alternative to empirical equations traditionally used in bridge engineering. The authors collected a comprehensive experimental dataset from the literature, consisting of 182 test specimens with varied geometrical, material, and loading parameters relevant to joint behavior. A total of 15 input features—including axial load, joint area, concrete strength, and reinforcement details—were used to model the shear strength Three different ML algorithms were evaluated: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Random Forest (RF), and Support Vector Machine (SVM). The models were trained and validated using k-fold cross-validation, and their predictive performance was assessed using statistical indicators such as coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean square error (RMSE). The trained models were also compared with existing design formulas, including those from AASHTO and other standard codes. Additionally, sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the most influential variables affecting shear strength predictions	The study found that all three ML models outperformed traditional empirical formulas in terms of prediction accuracy, with the Random Forest model achieving the highest performance, followed closely by ANN and SVM. Sensitivity analysis showed that parameters such as joint area, axial load, and concrete compressive strength had the most significant impact on shear strength. The authors concluded that machine learning models provide a more flexible, accurate, and data-driven approach to shear strength prediction in precast joints. While the models showed strong performance within the available data range, the study acknowledged the need for larger and more diverse datasets to improve generalization and reliability in real-world applications
Wang et al., (2023); Benoy and Joseph, (2021)	Predicting the effective stiffness of precast concrete columns (PCCs) is crucial for their use in seismic regions. However, existing research lacks reliable prediction methods due to the complexity of the problem. This study introduces a machine learning (ML) approach using a voting ensemble learning (VEL) model that integrates support vector regression (SVR), random forest regression (RFR), and gradient boosting tree regression (GBTR) as base learners An experimental dataset of 177 flexure-dominant PCC specimens, each characterized by 42 features, was compiled from published studies. The model development process involved data preparation, feature selection, and hyperparameter tuning. The performance of voting ensemble learning and individual models (SVR, RFR, GBTR) was evaluated both with and without feature selection and compared to traditional empirical formulas	The voting ensemble learning model with feature selection significantly outperformed existing methods, reducing the feature set by half without compromising accuracy. Partial dependence analysis and individual conditional expectation techniques were used to interpret the model and identify key influencing features. In addition to the four variables used in current formulas, five more were found to significantly affect effective stiffness Despite limitations such as a limited dataset and parameter range, the study offers the first machine learning-based method for predicting effective stiffness in precast concrete columns, providing a valuable foundation for future research Limitations: The proposed ML model faces several limitations. First, its predictive accuracy may be affected by the limited size of the dataset and the sparsity of certain design parameters. Second, the narrow range of input variables restricts the model’s generalizability. Third, the lack of mechanical interpretability limits its direct application in structural engineering design. These issues highlight areas for future research and model improvement
Zang and Alam, (2020) and Phan & Athigakunagorn, (2023)	Developed a discrete-event simulation (DES) model simulating a precast concrete supply chain. The study evaluated batch delivery and offsite inventory buffer decisions to optimize Just-In-Time (JIT) performance. Validated using data from a Vietnamese precast project	Achieved a 52% reduction in manufacturer penalties and 77% less idle time by optimizing batch and buffer configurations demonstrating the effectiveness of JIT strategies in precast operations
Xu and Li, (2020) and Kim et al., (2022)	Proposed a proactive scheduling model combining Monte Carlo simulation for contractor-induced uncertainties and a genetic algorithm optimizer. Compared to traditional rules	The hybrid model yielded more robust schedules, reducing tardiness under uncertainty (best case: 303.8 h delay), outperforming baseline methods, thus demonstrating improved reliability in precast delivery
Fathi et al., (2021 and Ors et al., (2021)	-Authors investigated the seismic behavior of precast self-centering hammer-head bridge piers through a series of quasi-static cyclic lateral load tests, with variations in three key parameters: the level of post-tensioning force applied through unbonded strands, the ratio of energy-dissipating reinforcement, and the depth of the socket connecting the hammer-head cap to the column body. The specimens were subjected to lateral displacement protocols designed to simulate earthquake-induced deformations, and their hysteretic responses were recorded to assess stiffness, strength, residual displacement, and energy dissipation capacity - Finite element model using ABAQUS software was validated. The model incorporated detailed material behavior and interface interactions between precast elements, unbonded post-tensioning strands, and bond-slip effects of reinforcement - A parametric study was then conducted using the validated model to further explore the influence of key design parameters specifically, post-tensioning force, energy dissipation reinforcement ratio, and socket depth on the lateral cyclic performance of the piers	- All specimens returned close to zero residual displacement post-cycling, demonstrating strong self-centering capacity even under large drift levels - Incorporating energy-dissipating rebar enhanced hysteretic energy absorption without hampering recentering - Increased post-tensioning force elevated lateral stiffness and peak capacity prior to strand yielding - The ABAQUS-based FEM accurately predicted experimental hysteretic behavior, capturing stiffness degradation and unloading/reloading loops with a high degree of accuracy - Sensitivity analysis showed larger socket depths improved load transfer and robustness - Comparable ultimate load capacities, to the monolithic piers, can be achieved with 100%ED rebar ratio and socket depth of (1–1.33) column diameter - The validated FEM can reliably aid in designing precast self-centering piers and tailoring PT and dissipation detailing - Designers can use the identified parameter ranges to develop resilient infrastructure capable of large post-earthquake displacements with minimal residual drift and controlled damage
Mohammed et al., (2021) and Chen et al., (2020)	This review paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the seismic performance of ductile hybrid post-tensioned beam-to-column connections in precast concrete frames. It presents a detailed overview of the development and evolution of hybrid post-tensioned connections, with particular emphasis on precast beam-to-column assemblies The review further explores performance evaluations of individual connections as well as the overall behavior of precast frames incorporating these hybrid systems under seismic loading	- Self-centering behavior: hybrid frames demonstrate self-centering capability when the amount of mild steel reinforcement is appropriately optimized. An increase in the percentage of mild steel enhances energy dissipation capacity - Post-tensioning and residual drift: insufficient post-tensioning force that fails to yield the mild steel in compression may result in residual drift, preventing the frame from returning to its original position - Strength comparison: the structural strength of precast hybrid connections is comparable to that of monolithic systems, with both post-tensioning tendons and mild steel reinforcement contributing significantly to the connection’s load-bearing capacity - Drift capacity: hybrid frames are capable of sustaining larger drift demands due to the gap-opening mechanism at the beam–column interface, which accommodates seismic displacements - Energy dissipation: the energy dissipation of hybrid frame connections is lower than that of conventional monolithic frames, attributed to the controlled damage and limited hysteretic behavior - Failure mechanisms: primary failure modes include fracture of the mild steel reinforcement or bond failure, with localized crushing of concrete observed in compression zones at the beam–column interface. Despite high drift ratios, overall damage to the frame members remained minimal, as deformation and distress were concentrated within the connection region - Beam growth effect: gap opening at the beam–column interface leads to an effective increase in the span between columns, a phenomenon referred to as "beam growth." Even if the connection meets code requirements, the global behavior of the complete structural system incorporating such connections should be assessed - Joint shear transfer: shear forces at the joint are primarily transferred through friction developed by the post-tensioning force across the interface
Kalliontzis and Sritharan, (2021) and Lia et al., (2020)	- Placement of thin rubber layers at jointed connections to improve seismic energy dissipation through experimental testing of various rubber classes and thicknesses - Use of both experimental and numerical data to quantify energy dissipation and seismic responses	- Based on the experimental data and analytical simulations reviewed in this study, rubber layers with a Shore hardness of 90 or higher and thicknesses ranging from 6.35 mm to 25.4 mm (0.25–1 inch) are recommended to enhance the damping performance of precast concrete members - Further investigation is needed to determine the optimal rubber properties for various geometric configurations of precast components, particularly under dynamic loading conditions such as those simulated in shake-table tests
Benoy and Joseph, (2021) and Mpampatsikos et al., (2020)	- This paper reviews the analysis of research studies on post-tensioned shear walls published within the last decade, focusing on illustrating benefits, studying behavior, and critically examining performance factors	- Post-tensioned shear walls have the potential to recenter after an earthquake, unlike conventional RC shear walls.- They can reduce the use of vertical mild steel reinforcement compared to conventional shear wall construction - Increasing the prestressing force decreases the residual displacement and the dissipated energy Absence of PT force can result in inadequate restoring, leading to excessive uplift, horizontal slip, and degradation of lateral strength and stiffness
Singhal et al., (2019) and Naderpour. et al., (2021)	The study presents a machine learning-based approach to predict the failure mode either flexural or shear of reinforced concrete (RC) columns subjected to lateral loading. The authors compiled a dataset of 239 experimental RC column specimens from previous literature, incorporating a wide range of design and material parameters, such as column geometry, reinforcement details, concrete and steel strength, axial load level, and transverse reinforcement ratio. Each specimen was labeled with its observed failure mode Several machine learning algorithms were implemented to classify the failure modes: Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). These models were trained and tested using a stratified k-fold cross-validation method to ensure balanced class representation and robust evaluation. The performance of each model was measured using accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score. To enhance model transparency, the study also conducted feature importance analysis to identify the most influential input parameters in predicting failure mode	The Random Forest and Support Vector Machine models achieved the highest classification accuracy, demonstrating the potential of machine learning to reliably distinguish between shear and flexural failure modes. The feature importance analysis revealed that shear span-to-depth ratio, axial load ratio, and transverse reinforcement were the most influential parameters affecting failure behavior. The study concluded that ML models can provide fast and accurate failure predictions, offering a valuable tool for seismic assessment and design of RC columns. However, the authors emphasized the importance of continuous data expansion and model refinement to further improve generalization and practical applicability
Failed, (2017) and Zhang and Alam, (2018)	Authors categorize precast columns into three types: emulative column, simple rocking column and hybrid rocking column Column damage, recentering force and the dissipated energy are tracked for each column type based on the experimental data available in the literature	The crushed concrete does not hinder the re-entering force of the tendon, the residual displacement would be small, which does not necessarily mean the column is undamaged. Therefore, residual displacement is only one of the criteria for evaluation purpose efficient and reliable methods are to be developed for the repair of various supplemental energy-dissipating systems
Xu and Li, (2020) and Perez and Mauricio, (2018)	The paper investigates the seismic performance and design approach of unbonded post-tensioned precast sandwich wall structures with friction devices Experimental investigation and Finite element analysis were conducted using multi-layer shell and truss elements. - Simplified procedures for idealizing experimental data. - Dynamic time-history analysis for design confirmation	-The unbonded post-tensioned (PT) precast sandwich wall system with integrated friction devices combines frictional resistance and PT restoring forces. By adjusting the magnitude of these forces, different mechanical behaviors and self-centering capacities can be achieved. Theoretical analysis confirms that such systems exhibit flag-shaped hysteretic behavior, which was validated through pseudo-static experimental testing -Pseudo-static tests indicate that systems with rigid joints dissipate energy primarily through plastic deformation, leading to eventual failure due to concrete crushing at the base. Although systems incorporating friction devices demonstrate lower stiffness and moment capacity compared to rigid joint systems, they effectively protect the primary concrete structure from significant damage. To enhance self-centering behavior in these systems, the inclusion of additional PT tendons is recommended -In the finite element analysis (FEA), the sandwich wall and friction devices were modeled using multi-layer shell elements and truss elements, respectively. A simplified procedure was developed to represent the experimental hysteresis curves in an idealized flag-shaped form. The accuracy of both the numerical model and the simplification method was confirmed through experimental validation -A performance-based design framework tailored to unbonded PT precast sandwich wall systems with friction devices was proposed. Time-history dynamic analyses verified that the proposed design approach effectively meets intended performance objectives
Chen et al., (2020) and Buddika and Wijeyewickrema, (2018)	Curved steel braces can improve the seismic performance of post-tensioned precast concrete beam–column joints - Experimental testing of four joint specimens with different cross-section heights and eccentricities under reversed cyclic loads. - Parametric analysis using finite element analysis (FEA) models. - Analysis of failure mode, strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation	- Curved steel braces improved the structural performance of post-tensioned precast concrete joints by providing stable mechanical behavior and enhanced strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation.- The equivalent viscous damping coefficient was two to three times higher than in standard post-tensioned precast RC joints, indicating improved seismic resilience.- The study demonstrated the practical feasibility of using curved steel braces in post-tensioned frames
Zhang and Alam, (2018) and Li et al., (2020)	This paper presents an integrated experimental and numerical investigation into the seismic performance of precast post-tensioned concrete walls equipped with both yielding-based and friction-based energy dissipation mechanisms for lateral load resistance. The experimental program involved quasi-static cyclic lateral loading tests on wall specimens, examining the influence of varying initial prestress levels, energy dissipation capacities, and heights of jacketed regions. Additionally, a three-dimensional finite element model was developed to simulate the structural response and assess the effectiveness of the proposed energy dissipation strategies	- Accelerated construction: the erection of precast concrete walls can be significantly accelerated by eliminating the need for casting and curing time associated with field grouting methods—such as grouted sleeves, corrugated metal ducts for splicing mild steel reinforcement across panel–foundation joints, and grout pads at horizontal joints - Enhanced drift capacity: the use of steel jackets to confine the in-filled concrete in compression enabled the wall specimens to achieve drift levels up to 4%, notably exceeding the 2.22% validation-level drift specified by ACI ITG-5.1. This was achieved with minimal degradation in lateral load capacity from peak values in both loading directions - Energy Dissipation Mechanisms: With out-of-plane buckling effectively restrained, buckling-restrained plates (BRPs) provided stable, yielding-based lateral resistance and energy dissipation under both tensile and compressive loads. Furthermore, frictional resistance developed by the slip of steel gaskets along slotted holes in the restraint plates contributed additional energy dissipation. The combined yielding-based and friction-based mechanisms significantly improved energy dissipation compared to yielding alone - Inelastic response and damage concentration: under cyclic lateral loading, the inelastic behavior was primarily governed by flexural action at the panel–foundation interface, with minimal concrete cracking observed above the steel-jacketed region. While high initial prestressing and friction-based dissipation enhanced lateral strength, they also led to increased plastic hinging and damage above the jacket in one specimen. Although this damage occurred at drift levels beyond those required by ACI ITG-5.1, its repair would be more difficult compared to damage localized in the external dissipation devices - Numerical simulation and validation: finite element models accurately captured both global hysteretic responses and local behaviors, including damage progression, strain distributions, performance of energy dissipation devices, and interaction along the panel–foundation joint. Theoretical flexural and shear strength predictions aligned well with experimental results, demonstrating the effectiveness of the analytical approach in representing the overall structural response., enhancing the energy dissipation capacity of the walls
Mpampatsikos et al., (2020) and Yan et al., (2018)	This study presents a parametric design approach for post-tensioned (PT) tendons and mild steel energy dissipaters in precast concrete rocking wall systems intended to resist lateral loads. A system of non-dimensional design equations is developed to guide the selection and proportioning of these components within a performance-based design framework. The proposed methodology is validated through nonlinear time-history analyses conducted on a representative case study, demonstrating its effectiveness in achieving targeted seismic performance objectives	- A non-dimensional parametric approach is validated for designing precast rocking walls with energy dissipation devices - The proposed design procedure was validated through nonlinear static and dynamic analyses, showing effectiveness in controlling design drift - The study recommends evaluating the wall’s performance at the collapse prevention limit state to ensure the hybrid system’s suitability
Singhal et al., (2019) and Mohebbi et al., (2018)	This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of precast reinforced concrete shear walls, with particular emphasis on the influence of post-tensioning. The review covers general design concepts, relevant code provisions, connection detailing, and key experimental findings. Although the paper provides a thorough examination of post-tensioning effects in precast systems, it does not specifically address post-tensioned precast jointed structures intended for lateral load resistance	- Precast technology offers advantages over traditional construction in terms of speed, safety, quality control, and cost reduction - Precast RC buildings are vulnerable to seismic damage due to connection issues, necessitating improvements in joint connection details and seismic resistance - The paper reviews experimental findings and the effect of post-tensioning on precast RC walls
Failed, (2017) and Lu and Wu, (2017)	- The paper examines the impact response and mitigation of precast concrete segmental columns with unbonded post-tensioned prestress tendon - Simplified analytical study to analyze the response of segmental columns by conducting comparison between conventional monolithic columns to evaluate impact resistance - Introduction of concrete shear key with optimized design to improve lateral shear resistance - Use of FRP wrap to strengthen concrete segments and reduce damage at joints	- The study analyzed the response of precast segmental concrete columns with unbonded post-tensioned prestress tendon under extreme dynamic loading - A comparison was made with conventional monolithic columns to evaluate impact resistance - Interventions such as optimized concrete shear keys and FRP wraps were used to improve lateral shear resistance and reduce damage
Perez and Mauricio, (2018) and Guerrini et al., (2017)	The paper verifies a simple model for lateral-load analysis and design of unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete walls - Use of a simple model and a fiber model for analysis and design.- Comparative analysis of the two models to verify the simple model’s effectiveness	- The simple model and the fiber model show similar values of base shear and roof-drift response, indicating the effectiveness of the simple model for lateral-load analysis - When columns were subjected to mid-span impact, peak loads remained essentially constant regardless of the strike height - When impacted at the base section, peak loads were consistently higher than for mid-span impacts—indicating that base impacts provoke stronger structural responses - This difference stems from the greater restraint provided when the column is struck near its base, which engages more of the structure in resisting the force For columns composed of multiple segments Impact at the middle section resulted in peak forces comparable to those from single-segment columns However, these multi-segment columns exhibited substantially lower relative displacement compared to single-segment columns suggesting that segmentation significantly improves resistance to deformation under impact
Buddika and Wijeyewickrema, (2018) and Moradi and Sharia, (2017)	The paper presents a method to calculate seismic shear forces in post-tensioned hybrid precast concrete walls under MCER ground motions The study involves developing a method to accurately calculate seismic shear forces in post-tensioned hybrid precast concrete walls under risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake (MCER) level ground motions	- A method for accurately calculating seismic shear forces in post-tensioned hybrid precast concrete walls under risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake (MCER) level ground motions was developed
Zhang and Alam, (2018) and z. Yu-Bu et al., (2015)	The paper examines the dynamic behavior of precast post-tensioned rocking columns under seismic excitations - Equations of motion developed using Lagrange’s method.- Numerical solution using fourth-order Runge–Kutta method.- Investigation of impacts, tendon stiffness, initial post-tensioning force, and loading characteristics	- The vibration period increases with the increasing of the rotational amplitude - The increase in tendon stiffness increases vibration frequency - The use of post-tensioning tendons can help to reduce rotational amplitude and delay the initiation of rocking
Yan et al., (2018) and Zhu and Guo, (2016)	The paper experimentally studied a new precast prestressed concrete joint by applying reversed cyclic loading test on precast prestressed concrete beam–column joints with different concrete strengths in the keyway area. Then, comparing the results with a cast-in-place reinforced concrete joint. Also, joint crack development, yielding, and ultimate damage were observed	- The precast prestressed concrete joints had seismic performance comparable to the equivalent monolithic system - The precast prestressed concrete joint and the cast-in-place joint had a similar failure mode and comparable mechanical properties - The presence of prestressing tendons limited crack development in precast beams
Mohebbi et al., (2018) and Nazari, (2016)	Shake table studies and analysis of a PT-UHPC bridge column with pocket connection to resist lateral loads - A precast bridge column was post-tensioned using unbonded CFRP tendons to eliminate residual drift - Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) was used in the plastic hinge region and as grout in the pocket connection to enhance strength and bond performance - A pocket connection was designed to provide full base fixity between the precast column and the precast footing - The system was subjected to shake-table testing simulating different levels of earthquake ground motion, including testing to failure Performance was evaluated based on observed damage, residual drift measurements, and connection integrity under seismic loading	- Shake table testing of the proposed novel column system demonstrated that the pocket connection exhibited satisfactory performance. An embedment length equal to the column’s cross-sectional dimension (D) was sufficient to achieve full fixity at the base - The use of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) in the plastic hinge region effectively prevented seismic damage and eliminated concrete spalling. Owing to the high compressive strength of UHPC, the dominant failure mode was rebar rupture rather than core concrete crushing, indicating that the column achieved its full flexural capacity - Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) tendons were successful in eliminating residual drift across varying earthquake intensities and present a viable alternative to steel tendons in bridge column applications
Lu and Wu, (2017) and Sritharan et al., (2015)	The paper examines the seismic performance of prestressed precast concrete walls compared to conventional reinforced concrete walls - Experimental testing of three prestressed precast concrete walls and one conventional RC wall - Use of reversed cyclic lateral loading to assess seismic performance - Comparison of seismic performance parameters: damage progression, failure mechanism, strength, drift capacity, energy dissipation, and residual drift	- The main displacement mechanism of prestressed precast concrete walls under lateral loading was rigid body rotation caused by gap opening at the base joint. This led to concentration of nonlinear deformation at the base, minimizing damage to the wall panel - Prestressed specimens exhibited significantly lower residual drift compared to reinforced concrete (RC) specimens without post-tensioning (PT) strands. All three prestressed specimens demonstrated self-centering behavior before reaching failure - The combination of self-centering and minimal wall panel damage suggests high potential for seismic resilience in prestressed precast wall systems - Although the prestressed specimens were initially designed to match the lateral strength of the RC specimen, the dense arrangement of energy dissipation (ED) bars near the centerline led to anchorage failure and reduced energy dissipation. This bar congestion is less likely in full-scale prototypes with larger sections - Despite reduced energy dissipation, the prestressed walls achieved comparable strength and ductility to the RC wall - PT steel and base joint performance in the prestressed specimens aligned with expectations. In contrast, the RC wall exhibited nonlinear deformation and damage along its full height due to continuous reinforcement, complicating post-earthquake retrofitting - PT strands in the prestressed specimens effectively provided vertical restoring forces, enhancing self-centering performance
Guerrini et al., (2017) and Failed, (2015)	The paper presents an innovative precast post-tensioned column technology for accelerated bridge construction in seismic regions - Dynamic shake-table tests and numerical simulations using OpenSees, then Comparison with conventional reinforced-concrete columns were conducted	- An innovative bridge column technology has been developed for seismic regions, enhancing seismic resilience through self-centering capability and minimizing damage - The technology accommodates large inelastic rotations with minimal structural damage and uses specifically designed steel devices for energy dissipation and the proposed technology outperforms conventional reinforced-concrete columns in terms of seismic resilience
Moradi and Sharia, (2017) and Prasad and Patchigolla, (2015)	The paper examines the parameters that influence the lateral load-drift response of post-tensioned steel beam–column connections Parametric study to identify significant parameters influencing lateral load–drift response of steel post-tensioned connections	- Finite element models were successfully used to simulate damage initiation and monotonic behavior of post-tensioned (PT) steel connections. These models captured key limit states including decompression (gap opening), angle fracture, beam buckling, strand yielding, and bolt yielding - The most influential parameters across performance indicators were: 1. Beam depth and beam flange thickness/width—strongly affected all four key response variables 2. Strand post-tensioning force, column height, span length, and reinforcing plate length—each influenced three response variables 3. Beam flange yield strength—influenced two response variables 4. Angle thickness, beam web thickness, and plate thickness—each affected only one response variable - Angle fracture in PT connections was most significantly impacted by post-tensioning force, beam depth, flange thickness, and span length - Initial stiffness of the PT connection was most sensitive to beam depth (40% contribution) and column height (38%) - The onset of gap-opening (decompression) was primarily influenced by post-tensioning force (47%) and beam depth (18%) - Residual stiffness of the connection was strongly affected by beam depth (36%) and column height (25%) - Load capacity was primarily controlled by beam depth (40%) and column height (21%)
Rahman and Sritharan, (2015) and Bu et al., (2015)	Authors evaluate the cyclic performance of different post-tensioned precast segmental bridge column designs to resist lateral loads - Designed and tested four 1/4-scale precast segmental bridge columns (PSBC) and one monolithic reference column (MRC) and were tested under cyclic quasi-static loading - Used different reinforcement types and arrangements: unbonded post-tensioned strands and bonded mild steel bars.- Included bonded energy dissipation bars to enhance energy dissipation. Set unbonded length in ED bars to delay low-cycle fatigue damage	- precast segmental bridge columns experienced minor concrete cracking or crushing at lower joints under cyclic loading - Unbonded PT precast segmental bridge columns with ED bars showed higher lateral strength, lower residual drift, and comparable energy dissipation to the monolithic reference column - Bonded PT precast segmental bridge columns had high lateral strength and medium energy dissipation but experienced large PT stress loss and residual drift
Zhu and Guo, (2016) and Broujerdian and Dehcheshmeh, (2022)	Hybrid precast concrete shear walls with grouted reinforcements and post-tensioned strands can provide lateral resistance comparable to monolithic construction - Design and testing of a hybrid precast concrete shear wall system (HPWEM) emulating monolithic construction using grouted vertical connecting reinforcements and unbonded post-tensioned high-strength strands for lateral resistance - Grouted reinforcements with predetermined debond lengths for strength and energy dissipation and post-tensioned strands for reducing residual displacement through elastic extension, overlapping welded closed stirrups for improved confinement and prevention of brittle failure - Testing of six HPWEM specimens with varying strand amounts and debond lengths, and one reference monolithic wall specimen, under low-cycle reversed lateral load	- The proposed hybrid precast concrete shear wall (HPWEM) that improved confinement and prevented brittle failure through overlapping welded closed stirrups - HPWEM specimens provided equivalent strength, stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation to monolithic wall specimens under certain conditions
Nazari, (2016) and Qureshi et al., (2022)	Shake table tests on unbonded post-tensioned precast concrete rocking walls and wall systems with additional hysteretic dampers demonstrate their seismic performance - methodology can be summarized in experimental tests using quasi-static loading, Numerical studies, Large-scale experimental shake-table tests on SRWs and PreWECs with varying earthquake intensities - Variation of design parameters: initial prestress force, base moment to base shear ratio, and number/location of additional hysteretic dampers	- Minimal wall base damage was observed when these systems were subjected to design-level ground motions - The walls provided self-centering behavior, and additional O-connectors dissipated seismic energy at 0.6% wall drifts
Sritharan et al., (2015) and Pennucci et al., (2009)	The paper presents an innovative precast concrete wall system with end columns and unbonded post-tensioning to resist lateral loads - Large-scale cyclic testing was used to verify the performance of the PreWEC system. The system was constructed using unbonded post-tensioning to anchor the wall and end columns to the foundation. A newly designed, low-cost mild steel connector was used to connect the wall and end columns horizontally. The connectors were designed to be easily replaceable and to provide additional hysteretic energy dissipation - The system was tested to meet mandatory acceptance criteria established by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) and American Concrete Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) standards	- The PreWEC system can be economically designed to have a similar lateral load-carrying capacity to traditional reinforced concrete walls while minimizing damage and providing self-centering capability - The PreWEC system provides superior seismic performance compared to other structural wall systems, especially in the precast industry - The PreWEC system meets all mandatory acceptance criteria established by the ACI and ASCE for special unbonded post-tensioned precast structural walls and building frame special reinforced concrete shear wall systems
Failed, (2015) and Aragaw and Calvi, (2020)	The paper examines the lateral load response of unbonded post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete walls - Experimental study: testing of wall specimens under quasi-static cyclic load. -Numerical modeling: utilization of fiber beam–column elements and nonlinear truss elements	- Unbonded post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete walls can sustain large deformations before failure - Increasing the number of post-tensioned strands improves the wall’s self-centering capability. – The walls failed in different modes: one in shear and one by bar buckling and fracture
Prasad and Patchigolla, (2015) and Qiu et al., (2017)	The study involves reviewing existing literature and experimental investigations to understand design provisions and practices in various countries for precast concrete structures in seismic regions	- Precast concrete is widely used in earthquake-resistant structures despite initial skepticism due to past poor performance - Poor performance in past earthquakes was due to improper design and detailing, inadequate diaphragm action, and poor joint and connection details - Countries with high seismicity have adopted precast concrete construction practices, with recent experimental investigations focusing on reducing damage in structures using precast elements
Rahman and Sritharan, (2015) and Moradifard et al., (2022)	- The paper investigates the seismic performance of precast, post-tensioned concrete jointed wall systems designed for low- to mid-rise buildings using the direct displacement-based approach. Buildings were designed using the direct displacement approach - Performance evaluation was conducted using earthquake motions of different intensities. Response parameters included maximum transient inter-story drift, floor acceleration, and residual inter-story drift	- The precast, post-tensioned concrete jointed wall systems performed satisfactorily in terms of maximum transient inter-story drift and residual inter-story drift for all seismic events - Floor accelerations in seven- and ten-story buildings sometimes exceeded acceptable limits, suggesting a need for design modifications - Low-rise buildings had better performance in terms of transient inter-story drift compared to taller buildings

Codes Provisions for PT Shear Wall Design

Two major international standards including ACI standards 2007: ITG-5.1 and ITG-5.2 (USA), and NZS 3101 (New Zealand) have established design provisions for hybrid post-tensioned (PT) shear walls incorporating internal energy dissipators. The ACI ITG-5.1 and ITG-5.2 documents, published as Industry Technical Guides by the American Concrete Institute, provide specialized guidance on the seismic design and detailing of post-tensioned concrete shear walls and joints. These documents emphasize proper reinforcement, anchorage configurations, and detailing practices to enhance ductility and enable self-centering behavior during seismic events. In contrast, NZS 3101:2006, the New Zealand standard for concrete structures, offers comprehensive seismic design provisions tailored to the country’s high seismicity. It includes detailed requirements for post-tensioned wall design, anchorage systems, tendon force losses, and force transfer mechanisms, drawing upon insights from local seismic events to ensure reliable structural performance under earthquake loading. The key provisions of both codes are summarized below.

• U.S. Code: ACI ITG-5.1 and ITG-5.2

  The American Concrete Institute (ACI) formed the Innovation Task Group 5 (ITG-5), which produced two documents including ITG-5.1 and ITG-5.2 based on findings from the PRESSS program and related research on unbonded PT shear walls.

• ITG-5.1 outlines performance-based acceptance criteria for unbonded PT precast structural walls, applicable to both coupled and uncoupled configurations and mid-rise buildings. Test specimens are subjected to displacement-controlled cyclic loading until either failure, or a defined drift limit is reached as calculated in Eq. (3), the maximum strength should be adjusted using Eq. (4):

  3

  $$0.90\le 0.80\left[\frac{h_w}{l_w}\right]+0.5\le 3.0,$$

  4

  $$0.9E_{\text{pr}}\le E_{max}\le E_{\text{pr}},$$

where:

• $\frac{h_w}{l_w}$: wall height and length

• $E_{\text{pr}}$: probable peak lateral resistance of the test module

• $E_{max}$: observed peak lateral strength

If drift exceeds the limit set by Eq. (3), additional criteria must be satisfied during the third complete load cycle:

• Relative energy dissipation ratio > 1/8

• Secant stiffness at ± 10% of peak drift ≥ 10% of initial stiffness

• Relative slip between wall and foundation < 1.5 mm

Failure to meet any of these conditions leads to disqualification of the test wall in validation testing:

• ITG-5.2 present’s detailed procedures for the design of special precast unbonded PT shear walls—both coupled and uncoupled—comprising segmented precast panels.

• New Zealand Code: NZS 3101:2006

• NZS 3101:2006 provides design guidelines for ductile jointed and hybrid precast concrete walls. Key parameters addressed include:

• Moment contribution ratio (λ) to ensure self-centering capability as calculated by Eq. 5:

  5

  $$\lambda =\frac{M_{\mathit{pt}}+M_n}{M_s}\ge {\alpha }_0\left(\ge 1.15\right),$$

  where:

  • $M_{\mathit{pt}}$: moment from PT tendons

  • $M_N$: moment from axial load

  • $M_s$: moment from energy-dissipating elements

  • α₀: overstrength factor

  • limits on initial prestressing

  • maximum strain in unbonded PT tendons

  • strain in non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement

The neutral axis depth and concrete compressive strain for a given inter-story drift or gap-opening rotation are determined through an iterative method based on compatibility assumptions. Flexural capacity is calculated from the moment equilibrium of tensile and compressive forces. Damping is calculated using equivalent viscous damping, with a lower bound of 5% and an upper bound defined as:

6

$${\xi }_{\text{upper}}=5+30\left(1-\frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu }}\right)\%,$$where μ is the structural ductility factor. If experimental evidence supports dynamic rocking behavior, contact damping (also called radiation damping) may also be considered.

Comparison Between FEMA P-58 and ASCE 41 Seismic Assessment Framework

Table X presents a detailed comparison between FEMA P-58 and ASCE 41, two prominent methodologies used for seismic performance evaluation of buildings. While both frameworks support performance-based assessments, they differ significantly in scope, modeling philosophy, damage quantification, and application. FEMA P-58 adopts a probabilistic, component-based approach focused on quantifying not only structural safety but also economic impacts such as repair cost, downtime, and casualty risks. In contrast, ASCE 41 primarily targets seismic evaluation and retrofit of existing structures, using hierarchical evaluation procedures and deterministic performance criteria. The table outlines these differences across several key aspects, including modeling approaches, damage state definitions, structural capacity checks, drift limits, and their treatment of post-tensioned (PT) systems. Additionally, it highlights how FEMA P-58 integrates fragility and consequence functions to link physical damage to expected losses, whereas ASCE 41 emphasizes structural acceptability and life safety thresholds. This comparison offers insights into the complementary nature of the two methodologies and informs the selection of an appropriate framework based on project objectives whether regulatory compliance or resilience-based design. Table 2 compares the provisions provided by both FEMA P-58 and ASCE 41.

Table 2. Comparison between FEMA P-58 and ASCE 41

Aspect	FEMA P-58	ASCE 41
Purpose and scope	Performance-based seismic assessment focusing on damage, repair cost, downtime, and safety	Seismic evaluation and retrofit of existing buildings with performance-based acceptance criteria
Modeling approach	Component-level damage states, fragility functions, probabilistic risk and loss assessment	Hierarchical evaluation: screening → nonlinear static/dynamic analysis; limit states based on drift and forces
Damage modeling	Damage states (slight, moderate, extensive, complete) linked to probability via fragility functions:$P\left(D{S}_k/IM\right)=\mathrm{\varnothing }\left(\frac{ln\left(\mathit{IM}\right)-{\mu }_k}{{\beta }_k}\right)$	$P\left(\mathit{IM}\right)=\mathrm{\varnothing }\left(\frac{ln\left(\mathit{IM}\right)-{\mu }_k}{{\beta }_k}\right)$
	$P\left(D{S}_k/IM\right)$:probability that damage state $D{S}_k$ exceeds a certain limit state at intensity level IM P(IM): probability that damage exceeds a certain limit state at intensity level IM $\mathrm{\varnothing }$: standard normal cumulative distribution function (CDF) ln(IM): natural logarithm of the intensity measure ${\mu }_k$: median (log-scale) of the IM at which the component/system reaches damage state k ${\beta }_k$: logarithmic standard deviation (dispersion) for damage state k
Structural capacity checks	Uses nominal capacities with strength reduction factors Flexural: $M_u\le \mathrm{\varnothing }{M}_n$ Shear: $V_u\le \mathrm{\varnothing }\left(V_c+V_s\right)$ ϕ: strength reduction factor (e.g., 0.75 for shear, 0.9 for flexure) $M_u$: demand moment from analysis $M_n$: nominal flexural capacity $V_u$: demand force from load combinations $V_c$: shear capacity provided by the concrete Vs: shear capacity provided by the transverse reinforcement (stirrups or ties)
Drift limits	Drift thresholds linked to damage states: Slight < 0.005; Moderate 0.005–0.01; Extensive 0.01–0.02; Complete > 0.02	Defined drift limits for performance levels (for columns): Immediate Occupancy (IO): ≤ 0.01 h Life Safety (LS): ≤ 0.02 h
Post-tensioned (PT) systems	Detailed fragility models capturing: - Gap opening/closing - Bolt and strand yielding/fracture probability models based on displacement: $P\left(\mathit{Gap}\right)=\mathrm{\varnothing }\left(\frac{ln\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\right)-{\mu }_g}{{\beta }_g}\right)$ P(Gap): probability of the gap opening $\mathrm{\varnothing }$: standard normal cumulative distribution function (CDF) $\mathrm{\Delta }$: demand parameter ${\mu }_g$: median (log-scale) (in log scale) at which gap opening initiates ${\beta }_g$: logarithmic standard deviation (dispersion) of gap opening threshold	Provides acceptance criteria for PT elements: Drift limits (e.g., IO ≤ 0.01 h) PT force adequacy: Pe ≥ Vu/$\mu$ Pe: Expected axial load or required prestressing force Vu: Factored shear demand (ultimate shear) μ: Coefficient of friction or ductility factor, depending on the context
Damage state to repair cost	Provides linkages between damage states and expected repair cost, downtime, and safety risk	Focuses on structural safety and usability, less on economic loss estimation
Typical applications	Performance-based design, seismic risk and loss assessment, retrofit cost–benefit analysis	Seismic evaluation and retrofit per code requirements, regulatory compliance

Design Methods of Precast Post-tensioned Walls

Historically, structural shear walls have primarily been designed using the force-based design (FBD) method. While widely adopted, this approach exhibits several limitations when applied to precast post-tensioned (PT) shear wall systems. Key drawbacks include: (1) the design base shear is not directly linked to a target displacement; (2) difficulties in assigning suitable force reduction factors for jointed PT systems; (3) reliance on force/strength parameters which are less indicative of damage potential than displacement measures; (4) assumptions regarding element stiffness, the inherent coupling between stiffness and strength, and period estimations; (5) generally higher design base shear requirements leading to less economic solutions, and (6) inadequate representation of jointed precast system behavior particularly because their energy dissipation and ductility characteristics differ significantly from monolithic concrete systems.

To address these challenges, the direct displacement-based design (DDBD) methodology has been increasingly utilized for PT shear wall designs. DDBD avoids the limitations inherent in FBD by focusing on achieving a target displacement, resulting in more accurate and efficient seismic design. A simplified schematic of the DDBD procedure is illustrated in Fig. 16 due to its widespread relevance and application.

[See PDF for image]

Fig. 16

Design flowchart for post-tensioned (PT) shear walls following the direct displacement-based design (DDBD) methodology (Tiwari et al., 2023)

However, Broujerdian and Dehcheshmeh, (2022) and Qiu et al., (2019) identified limitations in DDBD when applied to structures subjected to near-fault (NF) ground motions characterized by pulse-like records, where design drifts were exceeded. To enhance its applicability, modifications have been introduced to incorporate higher mode effects. In this refined capacity design approach, base-level shear and moment demands are calculated using the DDBD method, while higher mode contributions are evaluated based on modified modal properties. These demands are then combined using the square root of the sum of squares (SRSS) method (Moradifard et al., 2022; Qureshi et al., 2022).

Other researchers, including Yamashita and Sanders, (2009b) and Aragaw and Calvi (Piras et al., 2022), have also advocated for the incorporation of higher mode effects within a capacity design framework for improved accuracy. Beyond displacement-based methods, the energy-based design (EBD) approach—grounded in the principle of energy balance—has also been applied to self-centering (SC) structural systems. Examples include the performance-based plastic design method (Mohamed et al., 2011) used for SC braced steel frames (Kim et al., 2022) and SC steel moment-resisting frames (MRFs) (Kim et al., 2021). Qiu et al. (Failed, 2021) further advanced this methodology by developing a hysteretic energy spectrum that incorporates both plastic deformation and energy dissipation through hysteresis.

Summary and Conclusions

This paper has concisely covered the behavioral concepts and the practical developments of the new economically viable post-tensioned jointed structures as recentering and earthquake-resistant structural systems. The most significant benefits of such systems are the large lateral displacement capacity, minimal residual displacement, low structural damage, and recentering to the initial position upon unloading. Raising the initial PT force can enhance the load-bearing capacity and minimize the residual deformation of the proposed construction technique, although excessive increase could lead to excessive issues.

Increasing the initial PT force can improve the load-carrying capacity and reduce the residual deformation of the proposed construction method, but the excessive initial post-tensioning force led to a premature yielding of the post-tensioning tendons, which had negative influence on the self-centering capacity. Meanwhile, increasing the dissipated energy can also improve the load-carrying capacity, but the excessive energy dissipation can also reduce the self-centering capacity. So, considering the balanced design between total post-tensioning force and the required dissipated energy results in recentering capabilities and the largest possible dissipated energy.

Concept of “How to ensure the resiliency of a building” and “How to promptly restore” have been strongly applied using post-tensioned precast jointed structures. As:

• Post-tensioned joint is adaptable construction technique to all structural forms (bridge piers, slab–column, beam–column joints).

• Main difference between conventional construction techniques and proposed construction method is that maximum load is delayed as well as damage occurrence if any at large top displacement values.

• Method is maturely developed to include foundation flexibility and compliance, P-delta effects (sway mechanism) and to avoid localized damage.

• Proposed technique minimizes base shear.

• Post-tensioned precast construction leads to more economical design of structures (long-term wise).

• Post-tensioned joint fits perfectly within the framework of performance-based design.

Extracted Research Gaps

• Need for broader validation of the PTS system (with steel springs) under various seismic conditions and construction scales post-tensioned precast beam–column connections.

• Loss of post-tensioning force during seismic events as well as the time dependent losses is not fully accounted for in simulations. More accurate modeling strategies are required for the post-tensioned bridge piers.

• Connection detailing and ductility remain major weak points. There is a lack of comprehensive local building codes tailored to seismic design of precast systems in precast concrete buildings.

• Need for further studies on higher-rise applications and long-term performance of unbonded systems beyond low-rise structures of unbonded post-tensioned precast walls.

• The study recommends more research into integrating PT shear walls within full structural systems rather than analyzing them in isolation PT shear walls in buildings.

• Limited seismic experimental data of PT bars in precast shear walls exists on nonlinear seismic response of 3D models; most models focus on 2D analysis.

• Lack of strategies integrating post-tensioning and progressive collapse in precast RC structures. Focus remains on strengthening joints, but system-wide failure mechanisms are underexplored.

• While rocking bridge substructures are effective in energy dissipation, there are significant knowledge gaps in column–foundation interaction, repairability, and life-cycle performance.

• Comparative performance of internal versus external dampers needs long-term assessment in Precast Walls, especially under multiple seismic events.

• Performance under non-standard seismic records and soil-structure interaction effects remain unverified for precast frames with unbonded tendons.

Recommendation for Future Research

• The gap opening at critical sections connections after decompression causes the “expansion” of the PT frame, requiring the slabs and floor diaphragms to accommodate the expansion.

• The provisions of the design codes to guide the design and construction of self-centering structures have not yet been completely established; (starting with performance-based design principle).

• Influence of the prestress loss on the seismic performance by evaluation of the losses in prestress even due to large lateral drifts or time dependent losses including shrinkage, creep, and cable relaxation.

• More detailed finite element models of rocking systems with explicit models of EDs can be developed to perform parametric analyses, such as sensitivity and optimization studies.

• The efficiency of rocking systems can be further demonstrated and assured by investigating the possible adverse effect of the impact at the base of rocking columns, amplified demands due to elevated drift ratios, and demands on nonstructural components.

• Developing unified design methods for rocking buildings is critical to adopting new rocking systems in practice. The current application of rocking systems remains limited until seismic design provisions are provided in design codes.

• Comprehensive cost–benefit studies of rocking building structures compared to conventional structures are required to quantify the benefits and cost savings of using rocking systems.

Results from such studies will increase the proposed system reliability and will encourage the construction industry to use rocking/dissipating systems in new buildings and as a retrofitting technique, especially to overcome localized failure as soft-story mechanism.

Author contributions

Dina M. Ors: conducted the literature search, data collection, and critical analysis. The study’s design, interpretation of findings, development of the gap study, conclusions, and formulation of recommendations.

Funding

Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).

Data availability

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The data that support the findings of this study are available in the paper text.

Abbreviations and symbols

$P_e$

Expected axial force or required post-tensioning force

$V_u$

Factored shear demand (ultimate shear)

μ

Structural ductility factor or coefficient of friction

ϕ

Strength reduction factor (e.g., 0.75 for shear, 0.9 for flexure)

$M_u$

Demand moment from analysis

$M_n$

Nominal flexural capacity

$V_c$

Shear capacity provided by the concrete

$V_s$

Shear capacity provided by transverse reinforcement

$A_s$

Area of steel reinforcement

$f_y$

Yield strength of steel reinforcement

$f_c\prime$

Compressive strength of concrete

B, $b_w$

Width of beam or wall section

d

Effective depth of section (distance to reinforcement)

a

Depth of equivalent stress block in flexural analysis

$A_v$

Area of shear reinforcement

s

Spacing of stirrups or transverse reinforcement

CDF

Cumulative distribution function

Φ

Standard normal cumulative distribution function (CDF)

IM

Intensity measure

ln(IM)

Natural logarithm of intensity measure (IM)

${\mu }_k$

Median (log-scale) intensity measure at which damage state DSkDS_k occurs

${\beta }_k$

Logarithmic standard deviation (dispersion) for damage state DSk

$P\left({\text{DS}}_k/\text{IM}\right)$

Probability that damage state $D{S}_k$ exceeds a certain limit state at intensity level IM.

Δ

Lateral displacement demand or drift

${\mu }_g$

Median value of drift at which gap opening occurs

${\beta }_g$

Dispersion associated with gap opening

${\alpha }_0$

Overstrength factor

IO

Immediate occupancy (performance level)

LS

Life safety (performance level)

CP

Collapse prevention (performance level)

FEA

Finite element analysis

K

Karagozian & Case (material model used in FEA)

CDP

Concrete damaged plasticity (material model used in FEA)

winfirth

Winfrith model (material model used in FEA)

ABC

Accelerated bridge construction

PT

Post-tensioned

RC

Reinforced concrete

PCC

Precast concrete column

HPWEM

Hybrid precast wall emulating monolithic

CFRP

Carbon fiber reinforced Polymer

UHPC

Ultra-high-performance concrete

PreWEC

Precast wall with end columns

ED

Energy dissipator

ITG

Innovation task group (e.g., ACI ITG-5.1, ITG-5.2)

NZS

New Zealand Standard for Concrete Structures

FEMA

Federal Emergency Management Agency

ACI

American Concrete Institute

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

DDBD

Direct displacement-based design

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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