Content area
The restoration of traditional Chinese wooden architectural doors and windows is often hampered by extensive damage or missing elements, which compromises the integrity, authenticity, and continuity of repairs due to a lack of reference. This study applies the cultural landscape gene theory and its “Cell-Chain-Form” (CCF) graphic representation method to systematically deconstruct the basic structure and elemental features of doors and windows, analyzing their intrinsic relationships to establish an efficient reference model for restoration. Taking Zhangguying Village, a traditional Chinese settlement, as a case study, we extracted the CCF elements of its architectural doors and windows, conducted graphic expression, and performed digital restoration of damaged components based on this model. The results provide methodological support for the preservation, restoration, and modern utilization of architectural doors and windows in traditional villages, while also offering a referential framework for extracting culturally significant elements, symbols, and identities in global contexts.
Introduction
Traditional Chinese villages are treasures of China’s agrarian civilization, vividly embodying profound historical, cultural, esthetic, and economic values. Significant efforts have been made by the government in their conservation1,2. However, rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to the increasing fragmentation of traditional architectural landscapes and the continuous erosion of local cultural genes3—this is particularly evident in the deterioration of wooden doors and windows. As key carriers of regional craftsmanship, symbolic patterns, and structural wisdom, wooden doors and windows serve not only functional roles but also act as vital cultural symbols. Through intricate lattice designs, refined carvings, and fine joinery techniques, they encapsulate national esthetics and intangible cultural heritage, functioning as critical nodes that uphold architectural integrity and cultural memory4. Yet, in reality, traditional wooden doors and windows in Chinese architecture widely suffer from severe damage or partial loss of elements, with numerous components either completely ruined or incomplete. This situation directly results in a lack of crucial references for restoring decorative patterns, making rehabilitation work more challenging, less efficient, and difficult to ensure holistic, authentic, and continuous preservation. At the same time, the global trend of homogenization in modern architecture further dissolves these unique cultural narratives. Although initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 11) continue to advance, the loss of traditional construction knowledge and the convergence of modern designs urgently call for innovative methods to systematically decode, restore, and reinvent these endangered cultural symbols.
In recent years, the international field of heritage conservation has witnessed a shift in the restoration of traditional building components—from a singular focus on structural stability toward integrated practices that encompass authenticity, cultural values, sustainability, and community participation. This trend manifests at two levels. In terms of core restoration theories and principles, the focus of modern conservation has moved away from “making it look new” toward respecting and representing the multiple values of buildings. This is reflected in the pursuit of historical and artistic significance, the emphasis on cultural identity and the spirit of place, and attention to authenticity in materials, design, craftsmanship, and meaning5, 6, 7–8. At the same time, the restoration of individual components must consider their impact on the integrity of the building facade, streetscape, and even the entire historic district. At the level of advanced technologies and methodologies, digital tools such as 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry, BIM/HBIM, and artificial intelligence have become essential for the accurate recording, scientific management, and intelligent analysis of cultural heritage9, 10–11. Although these studies provide broad frameworks and advanced technologies, most focus on buildings as a whole, structural systems, or macro-level landscapes, with relatively limited systematic research dedicated to the restoration of micro-level building components such as doors and windows12, 13, 14–15. While Chinese scholars have accumulated substantial findings on the evolution of craftsmanship, formal characteristics, and decorative culture of traditional architectural doors and windows (TADW) 16, 17, 18–19, as well as regional decorative variations20,21, related research and practice generally face the following issues: restoration targets are often severely damaged, the process relies heavily on artisanal experience, and systematic technical guidelines are lacking; restoration methods overemphasize structural reinforcement without interpreting the regional cultural meaning behind patterns and compositional logic, failing to establish relational rules among component forms; technical approaches largely remain at the level of morphological documentation and fail to reveal the intrinsic generative mechanisms among elements. Although digital means such as virtual reality and 3D modeling have been gradually applied to heritage documentation in recent years22,23, these methods mostly remain superficial in capturing form and do not uncover the generative relationships between elements, making it difficult to support culturally authentic restoration practice.
In response to the aforementioned issues, this study introduces the Cultural Landscape Gene theory (referred to as the “Landscape Gene theory”) as the core analytical framework. Inspired by concepts such as Richard Dawkins’ “meme,” urban morphology, and geo-informatic mapping24,25, this theory was systematically proposed by Chinese human geographers in the early 21st century26. Its core argument is that cultural landscapes, like organisms, are governed in their inheritance and development by intrinsic and decisive cultural landscape genes. These genes serve as the fundamental units for the identification, transmission, and variation of cultural landscapes26,27. After more than two decades of development, the theory has expanded from its origins in traditional settlement geography to multiple disciplines such as architecture, urban and rural planning, tourism management, and art design28,29, demonstrating strong interdisciplinary explanatory power. In the fields of architecture and planning, its application has progressed from macro-level spatial form analysis of settlements to the identification and mapping of landscape genes in individual buildings like vernacular dwellings and temples30, 31–32. In tourism, cultural, and agricultural economics, research explores the commodification of space, rural revitalization, socio-cultural changes, and topics such as landscape gene variation, spatial restructuring, tourism-led revitalization, and local identity within the context of tourism intervention33,34. In art and design, studies involve the identification, genealogical systematization, and innovative design of cultural genes in music, fine arts, etc., based on the Landscape Gene theory35,36. These studies confirm that extending the Landscape Gene theory to the micro-scale has a solid theoretical foundation and practical feasibility.
The “Cell-Chain-Form” (CCF) structural analysis method originates from the Landscape Gene theory. By integrating concepts from urban morphology and cartography, it provides a universal “deconstruction-analysis-reconstruction” paradigm for decoding the internal structure of complex systems. The core of this framework lies in viewing any composite landscape as a hierarchical system composed of basic units (“cells”), combinatorial rules (“chains”), and overall forms (“forms”)37. The analytical method of this study is highly consistent with the core principles of the Nara Document on Authenticity (which emphasizes authenticity in design and craftsmanship) and the Venice Charter (which emphasizes integrity). By precisely recording the materials and forms of the “Cells” and the techniques and logic of the “Chains,” it provides a structured informational basis for assessing and maintaining the “authenticity of design and craftsmanship” of heritage. This ensures that restoration is a recovery of its constitutive logic, rather than merely a replication of its appearance. This analytical approach can provide a basis for spatial restructuring in rural areas on the urban periphery at the macro level38. At the meso level, it has been successfully applied to traditional settlements: treating buildings, temples, etc., as “cells,” and streets, water systems, and other connecting pathways as “chains,” ultimately forming the specific contour “form” of the settlement37. Traditional architectural doors and windows are a type of cultural landscape imagery formed under the influence of specific regional environments and their cultural mechanisms. Current research on traditional doors and windows often remains at the level of describing their overall “form” or listing decorative “cells,” severely neglecting the “chain” rules that govern their generation. This has led to arbitrariness in restoration practices and a loss of information in cultural transmission. This study innovatively applies this research paradigm to traditional architecture as a micro-level object, precisely to systematically capture and formally record this overlooked “combinatorial grammar,” thereby elevating heritage conservation from imitating “appearance” to inheriting “generative logic”39.
Therefore, this paper introduces the “Cultural Landscape Gene” theory and its “Cell-Chain-Form” graphic analysis method to construct a CCF identification indicator system for traditional architectural doors and windows. By analyzing the internal logic and combinatorial rules of the constituent elements of doors and windows, it aims to provide an operable and generalizable theoretical tool for the efficient, high-fidelity restoration and cultural continuity of traditional architectural doors and windows at the micro level.
Methods
Connotation of the Cell-Chain-Form (CCF) framework
The CCF framework can relatively accurately reflect elements, spatial structures, and logical relationships40,41, and similarly provides a systematic paradigm for decoding the genetic structure of traditional architectural components. Doors and windows are not indivisible wholes; rather, they are assembled from basic components such as door leaves, window lattices, lattice cores, apron panels, and retaining flowers in specific ways42. These minimal decorative or structural units—which cannot be further subdivided and carry independent cultural semantics (e.g., a plum blossom motif, a specific ice-crack patterned lattice strip)—naturally assume the role of “gene cells.” Furthermore, these basic units (“cells”) are not randomly assembled but are combined through strict topological connection rules (“chains”). This includes the joinery methods of mortise and tenon, the principles of symmetry and repetition in patterns, and the compositional relationships between primary and secondary lattice strips. For instance, the generation of the swastika pattern relies on specific rotation and connection “chains” of its stroke units, while the “bat embedded in ice-crack lattice” combines animal motif “cells” with geometric pattern “cells” through the “embedding” “chain” rule. Under specific “cell” libraries and “chain” rules, doors and windows give rise to highly recognizable overall configurations (“forms”), such as “partition windows,” “sill windows,” and “lift-hang windows.” This “form” is not merely a visual morphology but also the ultimate expression of regional style and cultural identity.
Identification and classification of gene “cells” in TADW
Unlike modern buildings with their uniform glass facades, traditional doors and windows are composed of diverse basic units. These elements not only fulfill practical and esthetic functions but also carry social values such as hierarchical concepts and status symbols19,20. Consequently, doors and windows often feature motifs of plants, animals, or characters symbolizing auspicious meanings, social rank, or identity4. The smallest decorative or structural units that cannot be further subdivided and carry independent cultural semantics are defined as gene “cells” in traditional architectural doors and windows (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 1
Gene “cell” of doors and windows (example).
To systematically identify “cells,” we established a dual criterion based on morphological indivisibility and core cultural semantics. Firstly, morphologically, a “cell” must be the minimal unit of a structure or pattern, such as an independent ice-crack patterned lattice strip or a complete kazihua (a decorative retaining flower). Secondly, semantically, it must correspond to a specific cultural theme, such as “blessings” (bat), “prosperity” (deer), “longevity” (peach), or “elegance” (plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum). Based on this, “cells” are classified into two categories. Single-element cells refer to basic units indivisible in both form and cultural meaning. These primarily include Geometric cells (horizontal/vertical lines, squares, rhombuses, etc.), Natural cells (plum blossom, crabapple, Buddha’s hand, etc.), Animal cells (bat, dragon, phoenix, etc.), Object cells (book, tripod, etc.), and Character cells (福- fu for “blessings,” 寿- shou for “longevity,” etc.). Multi-element cells are formed by combining two or more single-element cells through stable “chain” rules, expressing a more complex or specific cultural connotation. For example, the “工-pattern” is formed by horizontally and vertically connecting short lines, symbolizing integrity and uprightness; “bats embedded in an ice-crack lattice” combines animal cells with geometric cells, implying “boundless good fortune”; “peach blossom + crabapple” forms a floral combination expressing “full hall of wealth and honor.” The extraction of multi-element cells follows the “subdivisible” principle, meaning their compositional logic can be clearly parsed (Fig. 1).
Systematic rules of gene “chains” in TADW
The “chain” refers to the combinatorial rules that connect “cells” to form a “form.” It defines the spatial topological relationships and arrangement logic between basic units43. We have systematized it into three hierarchical rules: topological rules, arrangement rules, and semantic rules. In practical application, the “chain” in doors and windows manifests as a two-level structure: the primary chain determines the overall division and framework of the door or window, such as “top-bottom structure” or “side-by-side arrangement” (Fig. 2); the secondary chain organizes the arrangement and combination of “cells” within these divisions (Fig. 3).
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Fig. 2
The host “chain” of doors and windows (e.g.).
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Fig. 3
The secondary “chain” of doors and windows (e.g.).
Topological Rules refer to the logic of physical connections between components, primarily reflected in the joinery methods of mortise and tenon joints, which determine the structural stability and craftsmanship characteristics.
Arrangement Rules refer to the spatial organization of “cells” on a two-dimensional plane, representing the most intuitive manifestation of the “chain.” These mainly include three types, Symmetry Rules: Such as axial symmetry (common in doors) and central symmetry; Repetition and Modularization Rules: Such as translation and replication, used to form continuous window lattice grids; Hierarchy Rules: Distinguishing between primary and secondary lattice strips to form skeletons like “checkerboard patterns” or “nested squares.”
Semantic Rules refer to the cultural logic and taboos governing pattern combinations. For example, “dragons and phoenixes” often appear in pairs (symbolizing marital harmony or auspiciousness), and specific combinations of flowers and animals express fixed meanings.
Hierarchical definition of gene “forms” in TADW
The “Form” in TADW refers to the final overall visual morphology. To provide a clear definition, we classify it into two hierarchical levels.21. The Basic Form denotes the geometric outline of a single door or window frame, serving as the fundamental unit for morphological classification. It primarily includes the Vertical Rectangle (e.g., partition windows), Horizontal Rectangle (e.g., sill windows, lift-hang windows), Square, and Circle, among others. The Composite Form refers to a higher-level overall morphology composed of multiple Basic Forms combined through “Chain” rules (such as juxtaposition, symmetry, or nesting). For instance, a “Six-panel Partition Door” consists of six “Vertical Rectangle” Basic Forms arranged side-by-side, while a “Lift-hang Window” unit is formed by combining two “Horizontal Rectangle” Basic Forms, one above the other (Table 1). This hierarchical classification allows for the precise description of any door or window: its Composite Form defines its overall visual characteristics within the facade, while the Basic Forms of its constituent units and the Chains connecting them reveal the underlying generative logic. For example, the Composite Form of a “Partition Window” is a landscape morphology resulting from multiple “Vertical Rectangle” Basic Forms combined through the Chain rules of “translation” and “axial symmetry.”
Table 1. Gene Form of doors and windows (example)
Category | Type | Typical Window and Door Example | Gene Form |
|---|---|---|---|
Doors | Double doors | ||
Single Door | |||
Windows | Partition windows | ||
Sill windows | |||
Removable windows | |||
Horizontal transom windows | |||
Lattice windows (grille windows) |
Profile of selected regional
This study selects Zhangguying Village in Yueyang City, Hunan Province, as an empirical case. As one of China’s first nationally designated traditional villages, it boasts exceptionally well-preserved ancient Han residential architecture, with over 67% of its structures retaining their original wooden frameworks. The core residential complexes (e.g., Dangdamen, Wangjiaduan, and Shangxinwu) were constructed between the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty and the Jiaqing era of the Qing Dynasty (1573–1805) (Fig. 4). The spatial layout strictly adheres to Confucian clan hierarchies, exhibiting a distinct “丰“-shaped axially symmetrical characteristic. Furthermore, the village’s door and window decorations feature unique local pattern combinations, such as “twin dragons with a qilin” and “bats embedded in ice-crack lattice,” serving as concentrated manifestations of materialized cultural genes.44.
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Fig. 4
Location and picture data of the case.
A the location map of study area; B the aerial view of the study area; C traditional building exterior wall; D the Dangdamen building entrance; E the inner courtyard of traditional architecture.
The primary rationale for selecting Zhangguying Village is not based on the assumption that it “represents” all traditional Chinese villages in every aspect, but rather on its analytical value as a critical case. First, the village shares fundamental commonalities in cultural principles. Its adherence to Confucian ethics, Feng Shui concepts, and folk symbol systems constitutes the philosophical foundation shared by the vast majority of traditional Chinese villages. This ensures the broad applicability of the proposed CCF analytical framework at the level of cultural logic. Second, the village exhibits distinct uniqueness in its morphological expression. Its rigorous “triple-courtyard with encircling corridors” layout and unique pattern combinations provide an ideal testing ground for examining whether the CCF framework can effectively analyze universal principles underlying local particularities. A methodology capable of explaining uniqueness truly possesses universality and transferability. Finally, the high integrity of its architectural clusters guarantees systematic access to continuous data samples—from intact to damaged components—ensuring comprehensive validation of the CCF framework’s operational procedures.
Systematic Identification and Extraction Process for CCF
The four fundamental principles guiding the identification and extraction of cultural landscape genes are “internality, externality, local uniqueness, and overall dominance”45,46. Currently, various methods for extracting cultural landscape genes have been established, including text extraction, element extraction, graphic extraction, and structural extraction47. This study translates the “Cell-Chain-Form” analytical framework into an operational and replicable five-step workflow (Fig. 5), conducting classification based on the principle of “same category, similar attributes, and merged features.” This process begins with field data collection and culminates in the creation of a graphic database usable for guiding restoration, ensuring a systematic transition from data to knowledge to application.
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Fig. 5
Workflow for Identifying and Extracting CCF from TADW.
Step 1: Data Collection and Vectorization
Field investigations were conducted in July 2020 and March 2021 to capture seasonal variations in structural conditions. Data collection and visualization: 32 well-preserved and 17 damaged windows/doors were photographed using a camera (Canon EOS 5D Mark IV with a 24–70 mm lens), and then the acquired photographs were manually drawn using AutoCAD2018 to form vectorized patterns. Sample classification: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 5 local craftsmen and 6 elderly residents (65–89 years old) to learn about building construction taboos, symbolism, and historical maintenance practices. Based on the principle of similarity (the form and the host chain styles need to be kept identical. the secondary chain styles and the cell need to be kept near-identical, save for the size of cell), the 32 well-preserved doors and windows were then classified into 5 types of doors and 12 types of windows according to the Cell-Chain-Form (CCF) Framework, and a typical sample was selected for each type. which was named with type+date+number, e.g., DXM-202103-001, DXC-202103-001 (Fig. 6).
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Fig. 6
Vector diagram of typical doors and windows in Zhang-guying village.
Step 2: Gene “Form” Extraction
The structural extraction method is employed to identify and classify the overall morphology of doors and windows based on vectorized drawings, considering their contour frames and opening styles. The Basic Form primarily identifies the geometric outline of a single window frame, such as a Vertical Rectangle (e.g., partition windows), Horizontal Rectangle (e.g., sill windows), Square, Circle, etc. The Composite Form mainly identifies the overall morphology composed of combined Basic Forms, such as double-leaf doors or quadruple-leaf sill windows.
Step 3: Gene “Chain” Analysis
Based on the identified “Form,” the compositional logic and combinatorial rules are reversely analyzed. Using the structural-topological analysis method, a two-level extraction is performed. Primary “Chain” Pattern Extraction: By analyzing how Basic Forms combine into Composite Forms, the primary spatial structure is identified, such as Axial Symmetry, Central Symmetry, or Asymmetry. Secondary “Chain” Pattern Analysis: Within a single Basic Form (window frame), the secondary compositional forms of “Cells” are analyzed, including arrangement rules such as Repetition, Translation, Contrast, Radiation, as well as the topological connection relationships of mortise and tenon joints.
Step 4: Gene “Cell” Identification
By comprehensively applying the “Element Extraction” “Pattern Extraction” and “Meaning Extraction” methods, the minimal units constituting doors and windows are identified, classified, and semantically annotated. The “Cell” elements are categorized into three first-level indicators: Cultural Gene Cells, Graphic Gene Cells, and Pattern Gene Cells.
Cultural Genes are subdivided into three second-level indicators: Agrarian Culture, Clan Culture, and Religious Culture, interpreting and annotating cultural themes (e.g., blessings (福), prosperity (禄), longevity(寿), joy (喜), filial piety (孝) and agriculture (农)) embodied by these cells. Graphic Genes are subdivided into three second-level indicators: Pure Geometry (e.g., horizontal/vertical lattice patterns, grid patterns), Natural Forms (e.g., cloud patterns, fret patterns, ice-crack patterns), and Symbolic Forms (e.g., 卍--shaped patterns, “工“-shaped patterns). Pattern Genes are subdivided into three second-level indicators: Floral Plants (e.g., peach blossoms, crabapple flowers, Buddha’s hand), Auspicious Animals (e.g., bats, dragons, phoenixes, qilins), and Antiques & Treasures (e.g., books, ritual tripods).
Step 5: “Cell-Chain-Form” Graphic Database Construction
The results from the aforementioned steps are systematically integrated to establish a “Cell-Chain-Form” graphic database. Each recorded unit includes: vector graphics (Form), structural relationship diagrams (Chain), unit decomposition diagrams (Cell), and their attributes and semantic labels.
Restoration workflow design
The study of heritage aims to facilitate better preservation and transmission. By analyzing traditional architectural doors and windows, this research explores the commonalities in their constituent elements and logical relationships, ultimately summarizing the “cell-chain-form” (CCF) expression system for traditional architectural doors and windows. The CCF framework integrates both intrinsic and extrinsic modes of expression. It not only provides detailed graphical representations of the elements (cells), patterns (chains), and forms of doors and windows but also analyzes their cultural connotations, compositional principles, and values. Ultimately, we constructed a traditional architectural windows and doors “cell-chain-shape” graphic information database. Traditional architectural doors and windows typically exhibit two types of damage, One is partial damage, the structure remains largely intact, but some “cell” elements are missing; Anther is complete damage, the “cell-chain” elements are entirely missing, leaving only the window or door frames.
The graphical representation of “cell-chain-form” can serve as a bridge for restoring damaged traditional doors and windows. The specific restoration steps are as follows: ① Based on the composite form of the door or window, determine its basic form. ② Analyze the “chain” pattern structure of the traditional door or window based on its basic form. ③ If the assessment reveals central or axial symmetry. For partially damaged doors/windows: First, extract the well-preserved cell elements and chain patterns, then use copy-and-paste approach for restoration. For completely damaged doors/windows: First, determine their basic and composite forms, then select regionally appropriate cell elements from the CCF graphical database. Finally, use the “cell + chain, cross-referenced numbering” method from the graphical expression system to reassemble the new elements, aiming to restore the original appearance as closely as possible. The newly used elements should maintain consistency, ensuring the overall result is neither exaggerated, abrupt, nor conflicting. ④ If the assessment reveals asymmetry. For partially damaged doors/windows, refer to doors/windows with similar structural types for restoration. For completely damaged doors/windows, select regionally appropriate cell elements and chain patterns from the CCF graphical database based on the basic form, then apply the “cell + chain, cross-referenced numbering” combination method for restoration (Fig. 7).
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Fig. 7
Repair process of damaged doors and windows based on “Cell -chain-form”.
Results
In the process of analyzing and deconstructing the decorative elements of traditional architectural doors and windows, it is essential to ensure the independence of each element, the integrity of the spatial structure, and the clarity of boundaries. The analysis of Zhangguying Village’s traditional architecture reveals distinct “Cell-Chain-Form” (CCF) characteristics between doors and windows. The characteristics of traditional doors and windows exhibit certain variations (Table 2). For doors, the predominant style is the non-decorative “single-leaf door,”(86% of surveyed cases), with a minority featuring geometric patterns such as “horizontal and vertical lattice motifs” or “ice crack motifs”. The decorative style tends to be simple, often incorporating floral designs like “peach blossoms” or “crabapple flowers”, with relatively weak cultural depth. In contrast, windows are mostly symmetrical in structure and demonstrate greater diversity in type, morphological features, and pattern usage. They reflect a wide range of cultural themes, embodying auspicious and celebratory meanings such as “blessings (福), prosperity (禄), longevity (寿), joy (喜), filial piety (孝), agriculture (农), and scholarship (学)”. Overall, windows exhibit stronger cultural and esthetic advantages.
Table 2. List of “cell-chain-form” identification and extraction of door and window genes in the study site
Identifying elements | Tier 1 Indicators | Tier 2 Indicators | Extraction Methodology | Extraction results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Gene form | Dominant form | Door form Window form | Structure /Elemental/Pattern Extraction | Door forms: external doors - “double doors”; internal doors - “single doors”. Window forms: “partition window, latticed window (straight pane, reclining pane), horizontal pane window, sill window”. |
Basic form | Morphology | Elemental /Pattern extraction | Morphology: square, horizontal rectangle, vertical rectangle. | |
Compound form | Compound forms: inner round and outer square, inner square and outer square, horizontal and vertical rectangular nesting. | |||
Gene chain | Main space structure | Symmetrical Asymmetric | Structure extraction | Door structure: axisymmetric structure, mostly one board structure. Window structure: central symmetry, axisymmetry, incomplete symmetry. |
Sub-assemblage forms | Rhetoric | Structure extraction | Rhetoric: repetition, direction, contrast. | |
Arrangement | Arrangement: linear arrangement, curved arrangement, custom arrangement | |||
Combination | Combination: single-element combination, multi-element combination | |||
Gene cell | Graphic genes | Pure Geometry Natural forms Symbolic forms | Elemental/ Meaning/ Structural/ Pattern extraction | Door form: pure geometry “horizontal and vertical latticework, grid pattern”; natural form “ice crack”. Window patterns: pure geometry “horizontal and vertical latticework, grid pattern”, etc.; natural patterns “ice crack, return pattern, cloud pattern”, etc.; symbolic patterns “卍-pattern, 工-pattern”, etc. |
Pattern Gene | Flowers and plants Auspicious and rare birds Antiques and treasures | Element/Pattern/ Meaning extraction | Door motifs: fewer motifs are used, and some of them are decorated with flowers and plants such as “peach blossoms and begonias”. Window patterns: “floral plants” such as: peach, plum blossom, begonia, Buddha’s hand, etc.; “auspicious birds” such as: bats, dragons and phoenixes, magpies, deer, double fish, etc.; “antiques and treasures” such as: books, tripods, etc. | |
Cultural genes | Farming Culture Clan Culture Religious Culture | Pattern / Meaning extraction | Door culture: less cultural symbol elements. Window culture: “five bats holding longevity” means blessing; “Two dragons playing pearl、Double phoenix rising” means prosperity; “Peach offering longevity、Pine and crane everlasting spring” means Longevity; “Magpie Annunciation of Joy” means Joy; “The Visit of Silang to his Mother” means Filial Piety; “Fishing, Woodcutting and Farming” means Learning and Agriculture. |
Characteristics and representation of cells
The main architectural complex of Zhangguying Village primarily dates back to the Ming and Qing dynasties, featuring a wide variety of decorative motifs on its doors and windows. Based on field research, including photographic documentation and interview data, we abstracted and extracted the “cell” elements of these doors and windows, analyzing their compositional forms. The study identified 35 types of single-element cells and 31 types of multi-element cells. Among these, single-element cells manifest in graphical genes (pure geometry), pattern genes (plants/animals), and cultural genes (text), while multi-element cells are reflected in combinations of graphical genes (single-line combinations/symbolic representations/natural forms) and integrations of pattern and graphical genes (plant+/animal+) (Fig. 8).
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Fig. 8
Graphic representation of doors and windows gene cells in the study area.
The traditional village of Zhangguying adheres to the Taoist principle of “harmony between man and nature” from the I Ching and the Confucian ideal of “ethical rites and music,” emphasizing the unity of nature, heavenly principles, and human ethics, as well as a cultural philosophy that aspires to a harmonious and prosperous life. Three semantic clusters emerged from the study of cultural connotations of windows and doors (Table 3).1) ①“Floral Motifs”, These primarily feature plants that reflect the owner’s refined temperament and aspirations for a better life, including flowers, leaves, and fruits. Such as peach and plum blossoms, which symbolize “joy and auspiciousness” in ancestral halls; Crabapple flowers represent “peace and good fortune”; Buddha’s hands (a citrus variant), conveys “blessings, longevity, and prosperity”; and lotus flowers and leaves, which symbolize “integrity, self-discipline, beauty, unity and harmony” in scholar residences. ②“Animal Motifs”, Bat motifs are ubiquitous in window lattices, leveraging phonetic association (“bat” = “fu”福) to invoke wealth and fortune; Auspicious designs like “dragon-phoenix in harmony, two dragons playing beads joyful”, and other auspicious motifs, reflecting the people of Zhangguying Village looking forward to a good harvest and the pursuit of a better life. For instance, on the left exterior wall of the Dangdamen entrance, a leaping deer appears vivid and lively, exuding vitality and spirituality, embodying the people’s pursuit of joy and harmony. ③“Symbolic Motifs”is mainly based on the types of “回- patterns, 工- patterns, 卍-patterns” and so on. 卍- patterns(swastika) denoting “eternal continuity,” accounting for 41% of geometric cells; 回- patterns border motifs asserting “cyclical harmony” in threshold windows;工- patterns play a connecting role in the latticed windows, and in addition to the effect of the hieroglyphic ordinary characters, it also has the meanings of subtlety, uprightness and regularity. See Table 3 for detailed cultural connotations (Table 3).
Table 3. Symbolic description of “cell” of doors and windows in Zhang-guying village (part)
Number | The “cell” element | Implication | Number | The “cell” element | Implication |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
12 | Cloud pattern: symbolizes high rise and good fortune | 37 | Abductor pattern: means wealth and prosperity will not end, and the descendants will continue | ||
13 | Peach blossom: represents good fortune | 45 | Ten thousand character pattern: ten thousand blessings and longevity will never be broken | ||
14 | Buddha’s hand: blessing and long celebration | 51 | Three arrows on one horse: endless, except evil | ||
15 | Begonia: fruitfulness and yutang richness | 38 | I-beam: symbolizes the integrity of a person’s character | ||
17 | Lotus flower: richness and good fortune | 40 | Ice crack: good, coming as desired | ||
18 | Banana leaf: tenacious vitality, richness and longevity | 41 | Straight lines: upright and rich in every way | ||
20 | Peach: prolonged life, longevity | 42 | Reclining lines: down-to-earth treatment of people | ||
21 | Butterfly: good fortune and hope for a better life | 47 | Well pattern: good luck, fire prevention | ||
22 | Bat: same as “fortune” | 48 | Hexagonal view: good luck and fortune | ||
23 | Magpie: joyfulness | 49 | 亜symbol of nobility | ||
24 | Dragon: wealth and good fortune | 50 | Flower knot: beautiful connotation, symbol of good luck | ||
23 | Phoenix: rich and auspicious | 52 | Panchang: also known as the auspicious knot, one of the eight treasures of Buddhism, the Buddhist law back to carry out, containing the meaning of long and eternal. Folk derived from the family prosperity, the continuation of descendants, wealth and good fortune from generation to generation of good prayers | ||
24 | Kirin: auspicious | 55 | Octagonal view: auspicious and festive | ||
27 | Deer: the same as “Lu”, cheerful | 54 | Turtle back brocade: long life, health and peace without disaster | ||
28 | Fish: yearly prosperity and abundance | 56 | Fang Sheng pattern: Han Chinese traditional allegorical pattern, beautiful and auspicious | ||
31 | Bottle: Peace | 46 | Two-sided continuous return pattern: used as a spacer or locking edge. Repeatedly looped, meaning continuous and lucky forever |
Characteristics and representation of chains
Structural parsing of primary spatial structures in Zhangguying’s windows and doors revealed predominant symmetrical configurations. doors exhibited four structural types (e.g., single-panel vertical segmentation), while windows demonstrated five sub-types of central/axial symmetry. Secondary compositional rules were decoded through rhetorical pattern analysis. One is the contrastive hierarchy, Dominant motifs (e.g., central bat-longevity clusters) were emphasized through scale and positioning, while subordinate cells (connective lattices, border fretwork) served auxiliary roles, creating layered visual narratives. The second is iterative rhythm, High-frequency motifs (工-patterns, 卍-patterns, bat arrays) formed repetitive sequences encoding “fortune, prosperity, longevity, and joy” themes. The third is combinatorial logic, cell arrangements followed linear, curvilinear, or custom patterns, including single-cell replication (工- patterns in lattice grids), hybrid assemblies (floral-zoomorphic composites in ancestral halls), radial diffusion (concentric dragon-phoenix motifs in ceremonial windows) (Fig. 9).
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Fig. 9
Graphic representation of doors and windows gene chain in the study area.
These patterns reflect the village’s socio-spatial order shaped by Confucian ethics and geomancy. Patriarchal ritual spaces enforced hierarchical arrangements—elder-centered axial layouts with status elevation northward38. Decorative selections adhered to metaphorical coding. Main halls prioritized monumental motifs (peonies for nobility, dragons for authority), side chambers employed modest symbols (bamboo for resilience, chrysanthemums for reclusion), threshold interfaces integrated apotropaic codes (swastika borders for cosmic continuity). This structured symbolism ensured alignment between architectural rhetoric and socio-cultural norms, with motif positioning precisely mapping familial roles and seasonal rituals observed in Ming-Qing archives.
Characteristics and representation of forms
The harmonious interplay of Cells and Chains generates diverse yet ordered window-door configurations, embodying the rhythmic esthetics and cultural intentionality of traditional architectural art. Symbolic assemblages—such as “plum blossoms + magpies” encoding “joy at the eyebrows’ tip” or “cranes + pines” depicting “eternal vitality”—demonstrate how semantic synergy elevates decorative motifs into narrative landscapes.
Through typological parsing, doors were classified into single-leaf (predominant in residential units) and double-leaf types (ceremonial entrances, rarely opened), both exhibiting vertical rectangular forms. Windows displayed greater morphological diversity. Extracted basic geometries included squares, horizontal/vertical rectangles, and circles. These basic Forms were combinatorially through the main chain rules into 3 dominant type (door) and 12 dominant type (window) (Fig. 10), such as square-within-square (symbolizing cosmic order in ancestral halls), circle-within-square (representing heaven-earth harmony in scholar studios), nested rectangles(encoding hierarchical spatial logic in clan residences).
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 10
Graphic representation of gene form of doors and windows in the study area.
Case validation through restoration
The “cell-chain-form” expression model for traditional architectural door and window decorative elements proves beneficial to some extent in both the restoration of historic structures and the design of modern architectural features. However, during the selection and combination of elements, it is essential to identify variations and patterns to further validate the system’s effectiveness. To test the model’s applicability, we selected 17 damaged windows/doors from preliminary surveys, categorizing them into “Partial Damage” and “Complete Damage” cases for digital restoration (Table 4). This experiment aimed to assess whether the proposed system could be generalized to other traditional architectural doors and windows of similar types.
Table 4. Repair examples of damaged doors and windows in Zhangguying village
Number | Cases to be repaired | Cell elements | CaseA/D Repair | CaseB/C Repair | Chain style | Illustration of the repair diagram |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
e.g. Ⅰ | 1/2.line 24.Dragon shaped 25.Phoenix shaped 38.I-beam 46.Wrinkles | Mirror the right-hand reserved portion | Horizontal rectangle; Cell selection: single-element cell (1–35) and multi-element cell (36–66) cross combination, e.g.,1 + 57, 10 + 23…… | Main structure: vertical axis symmetry; Secondary form: contrast, combination arrangement | ||
e.g. Ⅱ | 1/2.line 51.Three arrows on one horse 59.Plaid pattern | Patching with original elements | Horizontal rectangle; Cell selection: single-line mainstay, which can be cross-combined by 1–2, 36–42, 45–56…… | Main structure: vertical axis symmetry; Secondary forms: repeated, combination arrangement |
Partial Damage Restoration, Case A: Although severely damaged, the window’s main structure exhibits vertical symmetry. The intact right section was mirrored to reconstruct the missing parts, ensuring geometric consistency in the digital restoration (see “Case A: Restoration Design”). Case D: The structure remains largely intact, with only some “cell” elements damaged. We extracted the original cell patterns from adjacent undamaged doors and restored the missing parts using the original chain style proportionally (see “Case D: Restoration Design”).
Complete Damage Restoration, Case B: The damaged section is a horizontal rectangle with no surviving cell or chain elements. Two approaches were taken: Option 1: A proportional restoration was applied using a genetically similar window from the database (see “Case B: Restoration Design 1”). Option 2: Based on the remaining structure, we selected thematically matching cell elements and reconstructed them using both symmetrical and asymmetrical chain styles (see “Case B: Restoration Design 2/3”). Case C: This window features a horizontal rectangular form with a vertically symmetrical main chain style. If the database contained a similar window, we could directly apply a proportional restoration. Since no exact match existed, we selected analogous cell elements (e.g., cells 1–2, 36–42, 45–56 from the database) and reconstructed them using secondary chain styles (see “Case C: Restoration Design 1/2”).
This verification was conducted via theoretical digital restoration; actual fieldwork would require consultation with local authorities. Future efforts will involve: Comparative Analysis, Matching restoration designs with archival photographs and existing doors/windows in the village. Expert Consultation, Engaging craftsmanship specialists to evaluate the authenticity of the CCF-based restoration. Expert Assessment, Conducting a formal review to confirm whether the CCF method produces accurate and historically faithful reconstructions. This study demonstrates the potential of the “cell-chain-form” model in heritage restoration while highlighting the need for further empirical validation and cross-disciplinary collaboration to ensure cultural and structural accuracy.
Discussion
In 2009, China’s traditional wooden architectural craftsmanship was inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List as a Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, and its transmission through master-apprentice oral traditions. Compared to Western classical stone or concrete structures8, traditional Chinese timber-framed buildings exhibit lower overall durability, necessitating frequent maintenance, renovation, or reconstruction. This study demonstrates and refines the “Cell-Chain-Form” (CCF) expression model for traditional architectural doors and windows, validating its feasibility through restoration practices in the study area. This model not only deepens the application of landscape gene theory but also methodologically addresses core concerns in global heritage conservation regarding systematic documentation, authentic restoration, and sustainable transmission. The innovation of the CCF structural analysis method lies not in creating an entirely new concept, but in its systematic integration of existing typological approaches and its advancement through making logical hierarchies explicit. International architectural typology studies, whether focusing on European timber framing classifications, Ottoman geometric lattice analyses, or East Asian joinery systems, predominantly emphasize the induction and description of overall forms (“Form”)10,48,49. The progressive contribution of the CCF framework is that it constructs a clear hierarchical structure of “basic units (Cells)—combinatorial rules (Chains)—overall forms (Forms),” thereby shifting the research focus from morphological classification towards decoding generative mechanisms.
Although the CCF model originated from Chinese local practice, it possesses, as a methodological framework, universality that transcends specific cultural contexts. Its core logic—“deconstruction-analysis-reconstruction”—is universal. For instance, when analyzing the compositional logic of a Japanese machiya wooden facade, its lattices and storm shutters can be considered “Cells,” and their sliding and hinging mechanisms can be seen as “Chains.” Similarly, it can deconstruct the stone units of a Gothic rose window and their radial compositional principles. In these applications, the specific connotations of “Cells” and “Chains” are redefined according to the local cultural and technical context, which demonstrates the framework’s adaptability, not its limitations.
As a preliminary exploration of the CCF model, this study has the following limitations, which also point to directions for future research:
First, technological improvements are needed. reliance on manual vectorization and visual interpretation faces challenges in terms of efficiency and coverage. To achieve effective cross-cultural promotion, the bottlenecks of low efficiency and high subjectivity inherent in the original manual methods must be overcome. We propose that future work should integrate advanced digital technologies like deep learning50,51. Specifically, a cross-regional, standardized CCF graphic database could be constructed. Utilizing algorithmic models such as DCNN for training could eventually enable the automatic identification and extraction of “Cell-Chain-Form” characteristics of architectural components across different cultural contexts. This would provide technical support for large-scale comparative studies and rapid assessment of unknown cases, representing a crucial step towards the universal application of the CCF framework.
Second, adaptive model promotion is necessary. The formation of any settlement landscape results from the interaction of its local natural geographical environment and the ensuing regional culture. Consequently, the “Cell-Chain-Form” characteristics of architectural doors and windows exhibit both similarities and differences across regions. To verify and refine the explanatory power of the CCF model globally, it is essential to strengthen the development of door and window sample libraries from diverse cultural-geographical units. By accumulating typical cases from various regions within China and other cultural heritage sites worldwide, we can train more universal algorithmic models and ultimately develop CCF analytical sub-models adapted to different regional characteristics.
Finally, the integration of tradition and modernity requires guidance. While the CCF model provides a historical basis for restoration, clear guidelines are still needed for how to proceed innovative adaptation and modern translation based on this foundation. Future efforts should focus on developing a standardized protocol to guide the selective application of CCF principles in integrating new materials and functions during restoration and renewal, thereby striking a balance between cultural authenticity and contemporary adaptability.
The CCF framework combines rigorous theory with practical restoration work, providing a powerful analytical tool and a replicable model for preserving the “cultural DNA” of architecture at the micro-scale. It represents both a deepening and operationalization of Chinese landscape gene theory and offers the international heritage conservation community a methodological framework capable of dialoguing with diverse typological traditions and addressing universal challenges. With advancements in technology and the refinement of cross-cultural sample libraries, the CCF model holds the potential to become a bridge connecting local knowledge with international practice, propelling cultural heritage conservation towards a future that is more precise, systematic, and sustainable.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to Yueyang County Zhangguying Management Office of Yueyang City, Hunan Province, China for the material support. We also express our gratitude to Rongjing Wu for her assistance in data curation. The study was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Foundation of the Ministry of Education [Grant Number No. 24YJC850001, No. 23YJE850001], National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) [Grant Number No. 42301277], and Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant Number No. 2025JJ20651].
Author contributions
All the experiments were designed and carried out by C.Z., X.P. and Q.X. C.Z. is the main writer of this paper. She proposed the main idea. The data were acquired by C.Z., X.P. Q.X. revised this article and put forward suggestions for improvement. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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