Content area
This study explored the impact of the Flipped Classroom Model on improving EFL proficiency among high school students in Morocco. Conventional EFL teaching methods in Moroccan institutions typically focus on teacher-led instruction, which restricts student involvement and practical language use. Conversely, the Flipped Classroom Model reallocates content delivery to outside the classroom, enabling class time to be dedicated to interactive, student-focused activities that foster active learning and critical thinking (Freeman et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(23):8410–8415, 2014; Al-Zahrani, B J Educ Technol 46(6):1133–1148, 2015). Emphasizing a mixed-methods approach, this study integrated quantitative data from pre- and post-tests with qualitative feedback from student and teacher surveys, classroom observations, and focus group discussions. The findings demonstrated a statistically significant enhancement in students’ language abilities, including speaking, reading, and listening, after the FCM was implemented, with mean differences between 14.6 and 15.8 points. Furthermore, the study indicated high student satisfaction, reflected in a mean score of 4.3 out of 5, alongside increased participation in classroom activities. Nonetheless, challenges were noted, particularly regarding students’ self-paced learning management and the heightened workload for teachers in preparing pre-class materials. The results implied that while the Flipped Classroom Model effectively boosts language proficiency and engagement, it necessitates strong support systems to tackle the challenges linked to self-directed learning and teacher preparation. Recommendations include enhancing support for students, providing institutional support for educators, and conducting studies to evaluate the impacts of the FCM in educational settings.
Introduction
To our knowledge, this is among the first systematic examinations of the Flipped Classroom Model (FCM) within North African educational contexts, investigating its implementation in Moroccan English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. Operating within Morocco's distinctive trilingual environment (Arabic, French, English) and resource-constrained educational system, this research addresses a critical gap in FCM literature, which has predominantly focused on Western and East Asian contexts with robust technological infrastructure and different cultural-linguistic characteristics.
The Moroccan EFL context presents urgent challenges that require innovative pedagogical solutions. Despite increasing recognition of English's global relevance and its role in higher education access (R'boul, 2022), a significant disconnect persists between policy objectives and classroom realities. Students continue to graduate with limited practical communication abilities and lack confidence in real-world English usage (Alaoui et al., 2021; Richards, 2006). Overcrowded classrooms severely limit individualized attention and communicative practice opportunities (Bachiri & Sahli, 2020). Teachers face overwhelming workloads while lacking access to contemporary pedagogical resources or professional development in communicative language teaching (Duong, 2023; Ghaicha & Oufela, 2021). Furthermore, examination systems prioritize written grammar knowledge over communicative competence, creating fundamental misalignment between teaching practices and stated learning objectives. Recent educational reforms have promoted student-centered methodologies, yet implementation remains inconsistent, with many educators uncertain about transitioning from familiar teacher-centered approaches without adequate training or institutional support (Errihani, 2024).
The Flipped Classroom Model offers a potentially transformative approach to these challenges. By restructuring content delivery to occur outside class time, FCM enables classroom sessions to focus on interactive, student-centered activities that promote active learning and communicative practice (Freeman et al., 2014). The model's emphasis on student preparation outside class hours aligns with cultural expectations for educational diligence while creating classroom environments focused on practical language application. However, no systematic investigation has examined FCM implementation in North African educational systems, representing a significant research gap. The effectiveness of innovative pedagogical approaches may vary considerably across different educational, cultural, and technological contexts. Morocco's trilingual environment, collectivist cultural orientation, and resource constraints create unique conditions for examining FCM implementation that extend beyond previously studied parameters.
This mixed-methods study combines quantitative language proficiency assessments with qualitative implementation analysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of FCM effectiveness in resource-constrained contexts. Drawing on Constructivist Learning Theory and Self-Determination Theory as theoretical frameworks, the research addresses critical gaps by examining FCM effectiveness under real-world constraints while contributing to the theoretical understanding of pedagogical innovation transfer across diverse cultural and infrastructural environments (Chuang, 2021). The findings will inform teacher preparation programs, institutional support systems, and technology integration strategies that prioritize equity and sustainability in similar developing contexts (Zhang, 2022).
The investigation is guided by two research questions: (1) What are the impacts of the Flipped Classroom Model on student language proficiency, particularly in speaking and listening skills, within the Moroccan EFL context? (2) What challenges do teachers and students face in implementing FCM in Moroccan high schools, and how can these challenges be addressed to ensure successful adoption?
Literature review
Theoretical framework
This study employs two complementary theoretical frameworks to examine FCM effectiveness in Moroccan EFL classrooms. Constructivist Learning Theory (Chuang, 2021), particularly Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal Development, explains how FCM enables students to advance from independent content engagement to collaborative knowledge construction. Students establish baseline knowledge through individual preparation, then participate in classroom activities that enable peer-supported learning advancement, directly embodying constructivist principles of scaffolded social learning.
Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2024) provides complementary insight into the motivational dynamics that sustain FCM engagement through satisfaction of three fundamental psychological needs. Autonomy is satisfied through self-paced preparation and control over learning strategies. Competence develops through scaffolded classroom success and progressive skill building. Relatedness emerges through structured collaborative activities that foster peer connection and mutual support. Together, these frameworks explain both the cognitive mechanisms and motivational dynamics underlying successful FCM implementation, providing an integrated lens for examining effectiveness in resource-constrained, collectivist educational contexts. Research on student engagement (Kay et al., 2019) and cooperative learning in EFL contexts (Chen, 2021) further supports these theoretical foundations.
FCM in EFL contexts: a geographic research gap
Existing FCM research in EFL settings reveals a striking geographic concentration that limits theoretical understanding and practical applicability. Meta-analyses demonstrate FCM’s positive impact on language learning outcomes, including enhanced speaking confidence, improved listening comprehension, and increased classroom participation (Amiryousefi, 2019; Anjomshoaa et al., 2022; Shi et al., 2020; Zainuddin & Halili, 2016), with positive results in foreign language classrooms specifically (Basal, 2015). These findings align with broader EFL evidence on active learning benefits (Devira, 2020).
However, these studies have predominantly focused on East Asian contexts with high technological infrastructure and intensive examination cultures, or European settings with robust resources and high baseline English proficiency (Fisher et al., 2024; Webb & Doman, 2020; Zhang et al., 2016). While these contexts consistently report positive outcomes, they operate within specific infrastructural and cultural parameters that may not transfer to developing educational environments.
A critical gap emerges when examining cultural assumptions underlying successful FCM implementation. Most existing research assumes individualist educational orientations where autonomous learning operates within frameworks that prioritize individual achievement and self-directed study habits. In addition, current studies typically assume reliable internet connectivity, individual device ownership, and institutional learning management platforms (Lo & Hew, 2017; Santos & Serpa, 2020). These technological prerequisites may not exist in resource-constrained environments, yet systematic investigation of FCM adaptation under such constraints remains limited.
Most significantly, no systematic investigation has examined FCM implementation in North African, Arabic-speaking, or francophone educational contexts. This geographic void is particularly consequential given the distinct characteristics of these regions, including collectivist learning orientations, complex multilingual demands, and unique postcolonial educational structures that blend traditional and contemporary pedagogical approaches (R’boul, 2022; Said, 2023).
The Moroccan EFL context: unique implementation conditions
The Moroccan educational context presents three distinctive dimensions that create unique conditions for examining FCM implementation, extending beyond previously studied parameters and offering critical insights for pedagogical innovation transfer across diverse global contexts.
Morocco's complex linguistic environment, Arabic as the national language, French as the inherited colonial instructional language, and English as the emerging global language, represents a fundamentally different cognitive and pedagogical landscape than the predominantly monolingual contexts where FCM research has been conducted. Students navigate competing language processing demands while managing FCM's structural requirements, creating dual challenges of content comprehension and collaborative participation. This multilingual reality tests FCM effectiveness under increased cognitive load conditions while providing insights into how pedagogical innovations function in linguistically diverse educational systems globally.
In addition, traditional Moroccan classrooms reflect what Hofstede (2001) terms "high power distance," where teachers maintain clear authority positions and students demonstrate respect through attentive silence rather than active participation. This cultural pattern contrasts with FCM's emphasis on student-led discussions and collaborative learning, creating potential implementation tensions. However, collectivist values may actually enhance certain FCM components. Triandis's (1995) cultural dimensions theory suggests that the cultural emphasis on mutual support and collective responsibility could strengthen peer learning mechanisms that are central to successful flipped implementation. Understanding how these cultural dynamics interact with pedagogical innovation represents a critical gap in current FCM literature, with important implications for implementation in similar collectivist contexts globally.
Moroccan schools face significant resource limitations that test FCM's adaptability beyond well-resourced institutional settings. Limited device access, unreliable internet connectivity, and absent learning management systems necessitate creative implementation strategies that maintain pedagogical effectiveness while working within constraints. This reality addresses what can be termed an "infrastructure assumption gap" in existing FCM research, where studies have not systematically examined how the model can be adapted for developing educational environments. Understanding FCM implementation under these conditions has critical implications for global educational equity, determining whether innovative pedagogical approaches can address educational challenges in contexts where they are most needed, or whether technological requirements inadvertently exclude students who would benefit most (Jaafar et al., 2022; Wei, 2022).
Study justification and contribution
The convergence of these three dimensions, multilingual complexity, collectivist cultural orientation, and infrastructure constraints, creates a unique research opportunity that addresses fundamental gaps in FCM scholarship. To our knowledge, this is among the first systematic examinations of FCM implementation in North African educational contexts, testing and extending existing theoretical frameworks under conditions that differ significantly from previous research settings.
The investigation contributes to FCM theory development by examining how constructivist learning principles and self-determination dynamics function in collectivist educational cultures where collaborative learning mechanisms may be enhanced, while autonomous learning development requires cultural adaptation. It extends understanding of pedagogical innovation transfer by demonstrating how effective implementation can be achieved under significant resource constraints, providing practical frameworks for similar developing contexts globally. The multilingual dimension offers theoretical insights into how competing language processing demands interact with FCM's cognitive requirements, contributing to a broader understanding of pedagogical innovation in linguistically diverse educational systems.
Beyond theoretical contributions, the findings will inform practical implementation strategies for teacher preparation programs, institutional support systems, and technology integration approaches that prioritize equity and sustainability. By examining FCM effectiveness under real-world constraints characteristic of developing educational contexts, this research addresses whether innovative pedagogical approaches can reduce rather than exacerbate existing educational inequities. The investigation ultimately advances more inclusive and globally applicable educational research frameworks, moving beyond the geographic and cultural limitations that currently constrain FCM scholarship.
Methodology
Research design and rationale
This study employed a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design to examine FCM effectiveness in Moroccan EFL contexts, integrating quantitative pre-post assessments with qualitative data from observations, interviews, and focus groups to capture both measurable learning outcomes and nuanced participant experiences.
This study utilized a single-group pre-post design rather than a randomized controlled trial due to practical and ethical constraints specific to the Moroccan educational context. Administrative authorities expressed reluctance to deny potentially beneficial pedagogical interventions to control groups, particularly given the persistent challenges facing EFL instruction in public schools. Limited availability of comparable schools in the Marrakech-Safi region further constrained randomization possibilities. Also, institutional requirements mandated system-wide implementation once pilot testing demonstrated preliminary effectiveness, precluding extended control group maintenance. These constraints reflect the realities of conducting educational research in developing contexts, where ethical obligations to provide educational benefit often supersede experimental design ideals.
While the absence of randomization affects causal attribution, three design features compensate for this limitation. First, the large sample size (411 students) provides statistical power to detect meaningful effects and examine subgroup variations. Second, triangulation across multiple data sources, standardized assessments, questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews, and student journals, enables cross-validation of findings and identification of convergent patterns that strengthen inference validity. Third, systematic fidelity monitoring through structured checklists and independent verification ensures that observed outcomes reflect consistent FCM implementation rather than implementation variability. Together, these features address potential threats to internal validity inherent in single-group designs.
In addition, the implementation followed a structured protocol developed through iterative pilot testing. Pre-class components included 7–12 min instructional videos, targeted reading materials, and interactive quizzes delivered via WhatsApp groups to ensure accessibility, given infrastructure constraints, consistent with mobile technology–enhanced flipped learning (Hwang et al., 2015). In-class sessions followed a consistent format: initial 10–15 min reviewing pre-class content, 30–40 min of collaborative activities including role-playing and problem-solving tasks, and final 15–20 min for teacher-led clarifications and formative assessment. An overview of the four-phase implementation protocol used in this study is provided in the Procedures (Sect. “Procedures and implementation”), which details a 9-month timeline (Fig. 1).
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Fig. 1
Study design overview: five-phase FCM implementation protocol
Participants and setting
The study involved 411 high school students and five EFL teachers from two public high schools in Morocco's Marrakech-Safi region. Sample size was determined using G*Power 3.1 with α = 0.05, power = 0.80, and a medium effect size (d = 0.50), yielding a minimum requirement of 394 participants (Faul et al., 2007, 2009). Schools were purposively selected based on established EFL curricula, administrative support for innovation, basic technological infrastructure, and willingness to participate in research. This purposive approach ensured implementation feasibility while enabling examination of FCM effectiveness under realistic resource constraints characteristic of Moroccan public education.
Student participants were selected through stratified random sampling within each school, ensuring representation across gender (51% female, 49% male), grade levels (60% Grade 11, 40% Grade 12), and proficiency levels based on previous academic performance (30% beginner, 45% intermediate, 25% advanced). Inclusion criteria required enrollment in EFL courses, regular attendance (≥ 80%), mobile device access with internet connectivity, and parental consent for minors. Students with previous flipped learning exposure or concurrent intensive English programs were excluded. Students with documented disabilities were included and received appropriate accommodations in collaboration with school support services.
The five participating teachers were purposively selected based on a minimum of 3 years of EFL teaching experience, demonstrated technological competency, willingness to complete training and implementation requirements, and stable employment, ensuring study completion. Teacher demographics varied across experience levels (3–15 years), educational backgrounds (BA to MA in English/TESOL), and ages (26–45 years). School A (urban Marrakech, 1,200 students) provided better technological infrastructure, including computer labs and reliable connectivity, while School B (semi-urban El Kelaa Sraghna, 800 students) offered limited technological resources but strong administrative support.
Instruments and measures
Language proficiency was assessed through comprehensive pre-post tests measuring speaking, reading, and listening skills. Speaking assessments used structured prompts differentiated by proficiency level, evaluated on a standardized 0–4 scale ranging from no response to fluent, accurate communication. Reading components incorporated multiple-choice and short-answer formats, testing both explicit comprehension and deeper analysis. Listening assessments featured 3-min dialogues with comprehension questions plus note-taking tasks during mini-lectures. Alternative test forms with established equivalence (r = 0.87; pilot validation, n = 20; see Appendix A, Table A1) minimized practice effects between pre post administrations.
Table 1. Language proficiency improvements with effect sizes
Skill | Pre-test M (SD) | Post-test M (SD) | Gain | 95% CI | t | p | Cohen's d |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Speaking | 58.7 (12.4) | 74.2 (11.8) | 15.5 | [13.2, 17.8] | 14.73 | < .001 | 1.31 |
Reading | 62.3 (13.1) | 78.1 (12.3) | 15.8 | [13.7, 17.9] | 15.21 | < .001 | 1.26 |
Listening | 64.9 (11.9) | 79.5 (10.7) | 14.6 | [12.4, 16.8] | 14.95 | < .001 | 1.29 |
df = 410 for all comparisons. Cohen's d values above 1.25 represent very large educational effect
Student questionnaires measured four constructs using 5-point Likert scales: Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, Student Engagement across behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions, and Learning Outcomes focusing on perceived skill development. Teacher questionnaires assessed Implementation Feasibility, Student Benefits based on classroom observations, and System Challenges, including technological and pedagogical barriers.
Qualitative instruments included structured observation protocols documenting student engagement behaviors and teacher facilitation strategies during 35 classroom sessions. Semi-structured interview protocols explored student experiences with FCM components, learning strategy changes, and implementation challenges, while teacher interviews focused on pedagogical transformations, student behavior observations, and professional development needs. Student reflection journals provided weekly digital entries through guided prompts addressing learning experiences, technology use, collaboration assessment, and goal setting.
All instruments underwent rigorous validation, including expert review, pilot testing with 20 students and 2 teachers, and reliability analysis. Language proficiency tests were adapted from the Cambridge B2 First framework with cultural modifications (Cambridge English Language Assessment, 2015, 2016). Student engagement scales were derived from Fredricks et al. (2004), while technology acceptance measures were drawn from Davis's (1989) Technology Acceptance Model. Inter-coder reliability for qualitative analysis achieved Cohen's κ = 0.84 across major themes (Cohen, 1960).
Procedures and implementation
Implementation followed a systematic five-phase timeline spanning 9 months. The pilot phase (Months 1–2) involved comprehensive validation of instruments and procedures with feedback leading to video duration adjustments, quiz difficulty calibration, and structured communication protocols. Teacher training (Month 3) included intensive 16-h professional development covering FCM principles, technological tools, and implementation procedures, complemented by student orientation sessions establishing expectations and support systems.
Baseline data collection (Month 3) occurred within a concentrated 2-week period to minimize temporal effects, including pre-tests, initial questionnaires, and demographic surveys using standardized protocols. The main implementation phase (Months 4–9) featured systematic monitoring through weekly fidelity checklists, monthly progress assessments, and mid-point data collection. Final data collection (Month 9) encompassed post-tests, concluding interviews, and exit consultations with teachers regarding sustainability prospects.
Intervention fidelity was maintained through detailed implementation protocols and structured checklists completed by teachers, verified through observer spot-checks during 20% of sessions. Average fidelity scores reached 91% (range: 87–96%). Technology platform monitoring tracked WhatsApp group interactions, material access rates (89% average), and completion patterns. Internal validity controls included standardized data collection protocols, geographical separation between schools (45 km), contamination prevention agreements, and multiple measurement points enabling comprehensive trend analysis beyond simple pre-post comparisons.
Data analysis
Quantitative analysis employed IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28.0; IBM Corp., 2021) for comprehensive statistical examination. Preliminary assumption testing included normality assessment through Shapiro–Wilk tests and Q–Q plot inspection, homogeneity of variance verification via Levene’s tests (Levene, 1960), and independence confirmation through sampling procedures. All variables met assumptions for parametric analysis (see Appendix A, Table 4). Primary analyses included paired-sample t-tests for pre-post comparisons, multiple regression to identify improvement predictors, and mixed-design ANOVA examining demographic interactions with proficiency gains over time. Complete regression model diagnostics, including variance inflation factors and confidence intervals, are provided in Appendix A, Table 5.
Table 2. Student questionnaire results
Survey item | Mean/Percent | SD | 95% CI | Statistical test | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall satisfaction | 4.3/5.0 | 0.68 | [4.24, 4.36] | t = 18.47 | < 0.001 |
Increased Eengagement | 78% | – | [74%, 82%] | χ2 = 156.3 | < 0.001 |
Improved language skills | 85% | – | [81%, 89%] | χ2 = 198.7 | < 0.001 |
Challenges with self-paced materials | 25% | – | [21%, 29%] | χ2 = 41.2 | < 0.001 |
Qualitative analysis utilized NVivo (Version 12; QSR International Pty Ltd., 2018) for systematic coding and thematic development. A combined deductive-inductive coding framework initially drew from research questions and theoretical constructs, then expanded through open coding of 25% of transcripts to identify emergent themes. The final schema comprised 8 major thematic categories with 34 subcodes, achieving theoretical saturation after analyzing 85% of the dataset. Two independent coders established substantial inter-coder reliability (Cohen's κ = 0.84), with member checking conducted with 15% of participants achieving 94% agreement.
Mixed-methods integration was conducted within a sequential explanatory design, using joint displays to connect quantitative results to qualitative explanations at the interpretation stage. Meta-inferences were developed through systematic comparison of evidence types, addressing research questions through triangulated evidence.
Ethical considerations and limitations
The study adhered to comprehensive ethical guidelines through informed consent procedures for all participants. Parental consent was obtained for minor participants, while teacher participation remained voluntary. All data was anonymized, and confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the collection, analysis, and reporting phases.
Concerning the limitations of the study, three methodological limitations warrant acknowledgment. First, the single-group pre-post design limits causal attribution of observed improvements specifically to FCM implementation. Second, the 9-month implementation period may be insufficient to capture long-term retention effects. Third, findings from Moroccan public schools may not generalize to contexts with substantially different socioeconomic conditions or infrastructure capabilities.
These limitations suggest promising avenues for advancing FCM research in developing contexts. Randomized controlled trials with delayed-intervention control groups could strengthen causal inference while addressing ethical concerns about withholding beneficial interventions. Longitudinal follow-up studies extending 12–24 months post-implementation would assess retention effects and transfer to other learning contexts. Comparative research across diverse Arabic-speaking and North African regions would establish broader applicability and identify context-specific adaptation requirements. Finally, investigations of digital equity interventions, such as offline content delivery systems and community technology access programs, could expand FCM implementation possibilities in severely resource-constrained environments. These research directions would contribute to more equitable and sustainable pedagogical innovation transfer across global educational contexts.
Findings
This section presents the empirical outcomes of FCM implementation through integrated mixed-methods analysis, beginning with quantitative measures of language proficiency improvements and student perceptions, followed by qualitative findings, and concluding with mixed-methods integration.
Quantitative findings
Language proficiency improvements
All data met assumptions for parametric analysis. Paired sample t-tests demonstrate statistically significant improvements across all three language skills following FCM implementation. Speaking proficiency increased from a pre-test mean of 58.7 (SD = 12.4) to a post-test mean of 74.2 (SD = 11.8), representing a mean gain of 15.5 points. Reading comprehension showed the largest absolute improvement, advancing from 62.3 (SD = 13.1) to 78.1 (SD = 12.3), a gain of 15.8 points. Listening proficiency improved from 64.9 (SD = 11.9) to 79.5 (SD = 10.7), gaining 14.6 points.
All improvements achieved statistical significance (p < 0.001) with very large effect sizes (Cohen's d > 1.25), indicating that students moved from average to well above average performance. These substantial gains demonstrate both statistical and practical significance. According to Cohen's (1988) benchmarks, effect sizes exceeding 0.8 are considered large, while those above 1.2 are exceptionally rare in educational interventions, typically indicating transformative rather than incremental change. The observed effect sizes place students' post-intervention performance approximately 1.3 standard deviations above their baseline, representing movement from the 50th percentile to approximately the 90th percentile in proficiency distributions (Table 1).
Figure 2 provides an integrated overview of these proficiency gains alongside student engagement patterns and implementation considerations, synthesizing quantitative results with qualitative themes examined in subsequent sections.
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Fig. 2
Summary of FCM implementation outcomes: language proficiency gains, student engagement, and implementation analysis
Student perceptions and engagement
Student questionnaires revealed overwhelmingly positive perceptions of FCM implementation. Overall satisfaction achieved a mean of 4.3 out of 5.0 (SD = 0.68), with 89% of students rating satisfaction as 4 or higher. Student engagement showed marked improvement, with 78% reporting increased engagement compared to traditional instruction (χ2 = 156.3, p < 0.001). This increase was particularly pronounced among students who initially reported low motivation, with 85% of this subgroup indicating substantial engagement gains (Table 2).
Language skill improvement perceptions aligned closely with objective test results, as 85% of students recognized enhancement in their abilities. However, 25% reported difficulties with self-paced materials, a challenge significantly associated with prior academic performance (r = − 0.34, p < 0.001), suggesting that students with weaker backgrounds experienced greater difficulty with independent learning components.
Predictors of improvement and demographic analysis
Multiple regression analysis identified key factors influencing language proficiency gains (R2 = 0.43, F(6,404) = 51.2, p < 0.001). Initial proficiency level emerged as the strongest predictor (β = − 0.38, p < 0.001), with lower-proficiency students achieving significantly greater improvements than higher-proficiency peers. Pre-class material engagement strongly predicted gains (β = 0.31, p < 0.001), confirming that preparation quality substantially affects outcomes. Technology comfort also significantly predicted improvements (β = 0.22, p < 0.01).
Mixed-design ANOVA revealed no significant gender effect (F(1,409) = 1.23, p = 0.268, η2 = 0.003), indicating equal benefits for male and female students. However, initial proficiency level showed a large main effect (F(2,408) = 47.6, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.19). Post-hoc analyses confirmed that lower-proficiency students achieved significantly greater improvements than both intermediate and advanced groups (Tukey, 1977), suggesting that FCM particularly benefits struggling learners through scaffolded preparation and reduced classroom anxiety.
Qualitative findings
Qualitative analysis employed systematic coding procedures, achieving substantial inter-coder reliability (Cohen's κ = 0.84) and 94% agreement through member checking with 15% of participants. The complete coding schema with operational definitions and theme frequencies is provided in Appendix B, Table 6. The final coding scheme comprised 8 major thematic categories with 34 subcodes, reaching theoretical saturation after analyzing 85% of the dataset.
Enhanced student engagement
Enhanced engagement emerged as the most prevalent theme, appearing in 72% of student reflections, 65% of focus group discussions, and 68% of classroom observations. This transformation encompassed behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions.
The behavioral dimension manifested through dramatically increased active participation. One intermediate-level student exemplified this shift: "Before, I would sit quietly and just listen. Now with the flipped class, I have to participate in discussions and group work. At first, it was scary, but now I really enjoy talking with my classmates about what we learned from the videos." This change was particularly pronounced among lower-proficiency students, who found that pre-class preparation enabled meaningful classroom contributions previously impossible.
Cultural dynamics significantly shaped these transformations. Traditional Moroccan classroom norms typically discourage student questioning, yet FCM created culturally acceptable pathways for participation. One teacher observed: "Students found it easier to speak in small groups first; this respects our cultural need for harmony while building confidence." Students naturally formed WhatsApp study support networks, with one explaining: "We help each other understand the videos because in our culture, we don't leave anyone behind."
The emotional dimension revealed increased enthusiasm toward English learning, with students consistently reporting heightened motivation. The cognitive dimension demonstrated deeper learning approaches, with one student articulating: "In traditional classes, I memorized vocabulary and grammar rules. In a flipped class, I use English to solve problems and discuss real topics. I think in English now, not just translate."
Perceived language proficiency gains
Improvement in language proficiency appeared in 85% of student reflections, 78% of focus groups, and 73% of observations, revealing four interconnected dimensions.
Speaking confidence emerged most frequently, with students attributing enhanced oral abilities to increased practice in supportive environments. One participant explained: "My biggest fear was speaking English in front of others. The flipped classroom gave me many chances to practice in small groups first, then with the whole class. Now I'm not afraid to make mistakes because I know my classmates will help me."
Listening comprehension improvements were attributed to diverse pre-class video exposure introducing different English varieties and speaking styles. Reading strategy development constituted the third dimension, with students demonstrating more sophisticated comprehension approaches. Integration of multiple language skills represented the most sophisticated dimension, with one advanced student reflecting: "The flipped classroom helped me connect listening, reading, speaking, and writing. When we discuss a video, we use all skills together, which is more like real English use."
Implementation challenges
Self-paced learning challenges emerged in 25% of student reflections, revealing three interconnected barriers. Time management difficulties represented the most frequent challenge, particularly acute among students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, balancing academic demands with family obligations. One student articulated: "The biggest problem for me is finding time to watch the videos and do the readings. I have many subjects and also help my family at home. Sometimes I come to class without preparation and feel embarrassed."
Technological barriers encompassed internet connectivity issues, device limitations, and technical literacy gaps. One participant described: "My internet connection at home is slow, so sometimes the videos stop and start. This makes it hard to follow the lesson." These barriers disproportionately affected rural students and those from lower-income families.
Self-regulation struggles emerged as the most complex challenge, encompassing difficulties with motivation, maintenance, and strategic learning behaviors without immediate teacher supervision. Teacher perspectives revealed pedagogical transformation alongside practical challenges. The evolution from information deliverers to learning facilitators represented the most significant shift. One experienced educator reflected: "My role has completely changed. Instead of standing in front explaining grammar rules, I now move around the classroom, listening to student discussions and providing targeted support. It's much more dynamic and responsive to student needs."
Despite these benefits, teachers consistently identified substantial time investment for material preparation as a significant barrier. One teacher candidly shared: "Creating or finding appropriate videos, designing interactive activities, and developing assessment materials requires enormous time. My preparation time has doubled, which is difficult to sustain alongside other teaching responsibilities."
Qualitative analysis revealed distinct experiences by proficiency level. Lower-proficiency students expressed strong appreciation for scaffolded support, with one explaining: "Before flipped class, I was always silent because I didn't understand anything. Now I watch the video many times at home until I understand, then I can participate in class. My confidence grew so much." Higher-proficiency students valued opportunities for deeper intellectual engagement and peer leadership roles, though some initially experienced impatience with slower group work pace.
Mixed-methods integration
Convergence and divergence patterns
Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings reveals strong convergence across multiple dimensions. Students' satisfaction ratings (M = 4.3/5.0) align with qualitative themes of enhanced engagement and transformative classroom experiences. Quantitative speaking gains (d = 1.31) correspond directly with qualitative reports of confidence increases and anxiety reduction through scaffolded practice.
The quantitative finding that lower-proficiency students achieved greater improvements (β = − 0.38) is strongly supported by qualitative evidence showing 90% of lower-proficiency students reported positive changes compared to 60% of higher-proficiency students. Qualitative data explains this pattern through detailed descriptions of how self-paced preparation enabled previously silent students to participate meaningfully.
Several divergence patterns provide complementary insights. While quantitative analysis showed no gender differences, qualitative findings revealed that female students more frequently described collaborative benefits while male students emphasized achievement-oriented aspects, suggesting outcome equity but different pathways to success.
Technology acceptance presents another divergence. Quantitative measures showed overall positive technology comfort, yet qualitative findings revealed significant barriers for rural and lower-income students, including connectivity issues and device limitations (Warschauer, 2004). This divergence highlights how aggregate measures can mask important equity concerns emerging through detailed qualitative investigation, creating a "participation paradox" where students express enthusiasm while simultaneously experiencing systematic exclusion from full participation (Table 3).
Table 3. Mixed-methods integration: key convergences
Domain | Quantitative evidence | Qualitative evidence | Integration |
|---|---|---|---|
Language proficiency | d = 1.26–1.31 across skills | 85% report gains across dimensions | Strong convergence |
Student engagement | 78% increased engagement | 72% reflections show a change | Strong convergence |
Differential impact | Lower proficiency β = − 0.38 | 90 vs. 60% positive mentions | Strong convergence |
Technology use | Overall positive (β = 0.22) | Significant barriers for subgroups | Divergence reveals equity gaps |
Meta-inferences and integrated understanding
Integrating the quantitative and qualitative strands yields four interlocking meta-inferences about how the Flipped Classroom Model (FCM) works and what it requires to succeed. First, FCM operates through a scaffolded-autonomy mechanism: it offers enough structure to support struggling learners while preserving flexibility that challenges advanced students. Here, quantitative predictors such as engagement and proficiency align with qualitative accounts of the benefits of self-paced learning to illuminate this dynamic.
Second, implementation must be differentiated. The interaction between proficiency effects in the quantitative data and descriptions of varied learner needs in the qualitative evidence indicates that lower-proficiency students require intensive scaffolding, whereas higher-proficiency students benefit from enrichment and extension opportunities. Third, technology integration must be equity-conscious. The divergence between broadly positive technology-acceptance scores and reports of concrete access barriers shows that institutions cannot assume universal access; rather, they must provide targeted support that accounts for uneven device availability, digital literacy, and infrastructure reliability. Fourth, sustainability hinges on institutional conditions. Quantitative indicators of teacher workload combined with qualitative narratives of professional growth suggest that long-term success requires relief from time and workload pressures while nurturing the intrinsic motivation that arises from improved pedagogical effectiveness.
Taken together, the mixed-methods integration provides a comprehensive understanding that neither strand could supply on its own. FCM emerges as a complex pedagogical innovation that depends on attending simultaneously to learner diversity, technological equity, teacher support, and enabling institutional environments. The quantitative evidence documents significant learning gains and positive student responses, while the qualitative findings identify the mechanisms, constraints, and contextual contingencies that shape outcomes.
Overall, FCM effectiveness appears to depend on the alignment of multiple factors: reliable and appropriate technological infrastructure, differentiated instructional design calibrated to proficiency levels, thorough teacher preparation with attention to workload, and ongoing institutional support that sustains innovation over time.
Discussion
Unique contributions and novel findings
To our knowledge, this study is among the first systematic examinations of FCM implementation in North African educational contexts, addressing a critical geographic and cultural gap in existing research. Three distinctive features of the Moroccan context create unique conditions that extend FCM scholarship beyond its current boundaries.
First, the trilingual cognitive landscape (Arabic, French, English) represents a fundamentally different linguistic environment than the predominantly monolingual contexts where FCM research has been conducted. Students navigated competing language processing demands while managing FCM's structural requirements, yet still achieved very large effect sizes (d > 1.25) across all language skills. This finding demonstrates that FCM effectiveness extends to complex multilingual educational systems, challenging assumptions that additional cognitive load from multiple languages might diminish pedagogical innovation benefits.
Second, implementation under significant resource constraints, including limited device access, unreliable connectivity, and absent learning management systems, demonstrates FCM adaptability beyond well-resourced institutional settings. The success achieved through creative adaptations, such as WhatsApp-based content delivery and offline material alternatives, provides practical evidence that FCM can address educational challenges in contexts where innovative approaches are most needed. This finding directly addresses the "infrastructure assumption gap" pervading current FCM literature.
Third, the collectivist Moroccan cultural orientation created unexpected enhancements to collaborative learning components. Rather than hindering student-centered pedagogy, traditional cultural values of mutual support and collective responsibility strengthened peer learning mechanisms. Students naturally formed study support networks, with 72% of reflections showing enhanced engagement, partly attributed to culturally-aligned collaborative structures (Kusumoto, 2018). This finding challenges Western assumptions about individualist orientations being a prerequisite for autonomous learning success.
The most striking finding is that lower-proficiency students achieved significantly greater improvements than advanced peers (β = − 0.38, p < 0.001), with 90% reporting positive transformations compared to 60% of higher-proficiency students. This differential effectiveness pattern suggests that FCM particularly benefits struggling learners through anxiety reduction and scaffolded preparation, addressing persistent equity challenges in EFL instruction.
Interpreting findings through constructivist learning theory
Constructivist Learning Theory, particularly Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), provides the primary framework for understanding FCM effectiveness observed in this study. The substantial language proficiency improvements (mean gains of 14.6–15.8 points across skills) reflect successful scaffolding that enabled students to advance from independent content engagement to collaborative knowledge construction.
The ZPD concept directly explains why lower-proficiency students achieved greater gains. Traditional classroom instruction positioned these students beyond their ZPD—unable to comprehend teacher-paced content delivery or participate meaningfully in class discussions. Pre-class preparation through self-paced videos created the foundational knowledge necessary for meaningful classroom participation that would otherwise have been impossible. One lower-proficiency student's reflection exemplified this mechanism: "Before the flipped class, I was always silent because I didn't understand anything. Now I watch the video many times at home until I understand, then I can participate in class." This scaffolded progression enabled previously excluded students to enter their ZPD during classroom activities, maximizing learning potential (Krashen, 1982; DeKeyser, 2007; Long, 2011).
The collaborative classroom activities provided the social interaction central to constructivist learning. Students engaged in peer-supported learning advancement, directly embodying Vygotsky's emphasis on knowledge construction through meaningful interaction. The behavioral engagement transformations, with 72% of reflections documenting increased active participation, reflect this shift from passive information reception to active knowledge construction. Cultural adaptations enhanced this process, as Moroccan collectivist values naturally aligned with collaborative learning structures, creating culturally comfortable pathways for participation that respected traditional norms while enabling pedagogical innovation.
The cognitive engagement improvements demonstrated students' progression toward deeper learning approaches. The transition from memorization-based strategies to analytical thinking reflects constructivist principles of building understanding through active processing rather than passive absorption (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Biggs & Tang, 2011). Students developed metacognitive awareness, with one explaining: "I think in English now, not just translate." This cognitive transformation indicates successful schema construction through scaffolded, socially-mediated learning experiences. The effectiveness patterns align with usage-based theories of language learning (Tomasello, 2003), which emphasize meaningful, contextualized language use in acquisition processes.
Interpreting findings through self-determination theory
Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2024) provides complementary insight into the motivational dynamics sustaining FCM engagement and explains the overwhelmingly positive student perceptions (M = 4.3/5.0 satisfaction, 78% increased engagement). The theory posits that satisfaction of three fundamental psychological needs, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, drives intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being.
Autonomy satisfaction emerged clearly through students' control over learning pace and strategies. Pre-class materials accessible via WhatsApp enabled students to watch videos multiple times, pause for comprehension, and review difficult concepts independently. This self-paced preparation satisfied autonomy needs by providing genuine choice over learning processes. Students explicitly valued this control, with one reflecting: "The videos are perfect for me because I can pause, rewind, and watch again. In a normal class, if I don't understand something, the teacher continues, and I get more lost." The 89% material access rate and consistent engagement patterns demonstrate that autonomy provision sustained motivation throughout the 9-month implementation.
Competence development occurred through scaffolded classroom success and progressive skill building. The preparation-participation cycle created positive feedback loops where successful preparation enabled meaningful classroom contribution, which reinforced preparation motivation. The quantitative finding that pre-class engagement strongly predicted improvements (β = 0.31, p < 0.001) reflects this competence-building mechanism. Students experienced tangible skill advancement, with 85% recognizing enhancement in their abilities. The particularly pronounced competence gains among lower-proficiency students, who previously experienced consistent classroom failure, explain their stronger positive responses and greater improvement patterns.
Relatedness emerged through structured collaborative activities, fostering peer connection and mutual support. The cultural emphasis on collective responsibility enhanced this dimension, with students naturally assuming peer tutoring roles aligned with cultural values. As one student explained: "We help each other understand the videos because in our culture, we don't leave anyone behind." This relatedness satisfaction contributed to the emotional engagement dimension, with students consistently reporting increased enjoyment and positive attitudes toward English learning. Teacher observations corroborated these patterns, noting transformed classroom energy and student enthusiasm.
The integration of these three needs satisfactions explains both the magnitude of improvements and their consistency across student populations. FCM created optimal motivational conditions by simultaneously addressing autonomy through self-paced preparation, competence through scaffolded success, and relatedness through collaborative activities. This theoretical integration explains why FCM succeeded where traditional approaches failed, addressing fundamental psychological needs that sustain learning engagement over time.
Cultural adaptation and implementation considerations
The implementation challenges observed align with self-regulated learning theory (Zimmerman, 2002) and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1991). The successful implementation in Morocco's collectivist educational culture reveals important considerations for FCM transfer across diverse contexts. Rather than conflicting with traditional hierarchical teacher-student relationships, FCM created culturally acceptable participation pathways. Students adapted by initially directing questions to teachers before engaging in peer discussions, respecting cultural norms while building confidence for student-led activities. This cultural navigation demonstrates that pedagogical innovation need not displace existing values but can channel them productively. Recent research on self-efficacy in flipped EFL classrooms supports these findings (Han & Hamzah, 2024).
The technology integration challenges revealed critical equity considerations. While aggregate measures showed positive technology acceptance (β = 0.22), qualitative findings exposed significant barriers for rural and lower-income students, including connectivity issues and device limitations. This divergence between quantitative and qualitative findings highlights the importance of disaggregated analysis, as mean-level data can mask inequalities that educational interventions should address. These patterns extend technology acceptance models (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003) by highlighting the mediating role of educational context in technology adoption decisions. Successful FCM implementation requires equity-conscious approaches that provide differentiated support based on varying technological access and digital literacy levels across student populations.
The gender equity in outcomes, with no significant differences in improvement patterns (p = 0.268), demonstrates that when technological access and classroom participation are equitably supported, FCM benefits all students regardless of gender. However, qualitative findings revealed different pathways to success, with female students emphasizing collaborative benefits while male students focused on achievement-oriented aspects. This finding suggests that equitable outcomes can emerge through diverse processes, supporting pedagogically inclusive approaches that accommodate varied learning preferences.
Teacher implementation experiences highlighted the complexity of pedagogical transformation. While 85% reported increased workload concerns, teachers simultaneously valued enhanced pedagogical effectiveness and stronger student–teacher relationships. This dual pattern indicates that sustainable FCM implementation requires institutional support addressing preparation burden while capitalizing on the intrinsic motivation teachers derive from witnessing student success. Comprehensive professional development focusing on facilitating discussions, managing collaborative activities, and integrating technology effectively emerged as critical for supporting the role evolution from information deliverer to learning facilitator (Guskey, 2002; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). These findings align with established models of educational change and flipped classroom implementation (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Fullan, 2016).
Practical implications and future directions
These findings generate actionable implications across three levels of educational practice. First, teachers implementing FCM in similar contexts should provide differentiated scaffolding based on student proficiency levels, with intensive support for lower-proficiency learners through guided viewing protocols and comprehension checks. Pre-class materials should be accessible via widely available platforms (WhatsApp) and designed for offline viewing where connectivity is unreliable. Classroom activities should balance structured collaboration, respecting cultural norms, with gradual autonomy development, allowing students to progress from teacher-guided to student-led discussions as confidence builds.
Second, schools and universities should invest in comprehensive teacher professional development extending beyond initial training to ongoing support throughout implementation. Institutions must address preparation workload through collaborative material development, resource-sharing platforms, and recognition of innovation efforts. Technology support systems should provide differentiated assistance based on student needs, including device lending programs and community technology access points for students lacking home connectivity. Research on gamified learning environments (Sailer & Homner, 2020) suggests that motivation mechanisms can be enhanced through careful technological design.
Finally, policymakers should recognize FCM's potential for addressing persistent EFL challenges, large class sizes, limited practice opportunities, and examination-focused instruction, while acknowledging that successful implementation requires substantial infrastructure investment and teacher support systems. Reform initiatives should prioritize equity-conscious technology integration, ensuring that innovations reduce rather than exacerbate existing educational inequalities. Professional development frameworks should evolve to support pedagogical transformations required for student-centered instruction.
In addition, several promising avenues emerge from this study's findings and limitations. Randomized controlled trials with delayed-intervention control groups could strengthen causal inference while addressing ethical concerns about withholding beneficial interventions. Longitudinal follow-up studies extending 12–24 months post-implementation would assess retention effects and transfer to other learning contexts. Comparative research across diverse Arabic-speaking and North African regions would establish broader applicability and identify context-specific adaptation requirements. Investigations of digital equity interventions, such as offline content delivery systems and community technology access programs, could expand FCM implementation possibilities in severely resource-constrained environments. These research directions would contribute to more equitable and sustainable pedagogical innovation transfer across global educational contexts.
Conclusion
As, to our knowledge, one of the first systematic examinations of the Flipped Classroom Model in North African educational contexts, this study demonstrates that FCM implementation in Moroccan EFL classrooms yields significant learning gains while fostering active, student-centered environments. Improvements of 14–16 points with large effect sizes (d > 1.25) highlight the model's effectiveness when adapted to local conditions. Importantly, the findings extend FCM theory beyond Western settings by showing that collectivist traditions, when integrated rather than resisted, can reinforce collaboration and autonomy in learning.
Effective adoption depends on three interrelated conditions. First, technology must emphasize accessibility rather than complexity; WhatsApp-based content delivery proved more practical and impactful than sophisticated learning management systems. Second, cultural traditions should be positioned as resources rather than barriers, with peer networks and respect-based mentoring that honor traditional hierarchies while enabling collaborative learning. Third, institutional support must combine technological infrastructure with pedagogical development, since neglecting either dimension undermines implementation.
These results offer practical guidance across three levels. Teachers need to reposition authority roles as facilitative, support peer collaboration, and gradually scaffold learner autonomy. Administrators should prioritize simple, accessible technology while investing in teacher collaboration and preparation time. Ministries of Education must proactively address digital equity, provide integrated training, and recognize FCM as a long-term educational reform requiring sustained commitment.
The Moroccan case provides a replicable model for resource-constrained contexts, demonstrating that limitations can foster innovative, sustainable solutions and challenge deficit-based assumptions about developing educational systems. Globally, the findings suggest that cultural responsiveness is often more decisive than technological sophistication in ensuring equitable outcomes. The emphasis on collaborative learning and digital literacy development aligns with contemporary educational goals, preparing students with twentyfirst-century skills essential for academic and professional success.
Future research should examine long-term retention effects, adaptability across diverse cultural contexts, and cost-effectiveness compared to traditional methods. This study confirms that carefully tailored FCM can transform EFL instruction in developing contexts, creating active, inclusive, and culturally grounded learning environments that prepare students for an interconnected world.
Autho’s contribution
I declare that I am the sole author of this manuscript and have made all contributions to its conception, design, execution, and interpretation. I take full responsibility for the content presented herein and affirm that there are no competing interests, financial or otherwise, that could have influenced the research or the conclusions drawn in this study. All aspects of the manuscript, including drafting, editing, and final approval, have been conducted solely by me.
Funding
This manuscript was prepared without any financial support.
Data Availability
Complete research instruments (student and teacher questionnaires, interview protocols, classroom observation forms, speaking assessment rubric) and raw data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical statement
This study adheres to ethical research guidelines by ensuring informed consent from all student participants and obtaining approval from relevant educational authorities. Students and their guardians (for minors) were provided with detailed consent forms outlining the study's objectives, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any stage. Teacher participants also voluntarily agreed to participate, with clear assurances that their professional integrity and instructional practices would not be negatively impacted. To minimize risks, all data was anonymized, and confidentiality was strictly maintained. In addition, the study has been proofread for adherence to APA formatting standards.
Publisher's Note
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