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Marine heatwaves (MHWs) and marine cold spells (MCSs) are discrete temperature anomalies events that can persist for weeks or months, often causing severe ecological and socio-economic impacts. This thesis investigates the development, drivers and consequences of MHWs and MCSs in Central and Southern Chile (29°S-55°S), with a particular focus on Northern Patagonia, a region of oceanographic interest and of an economic importance due to intensive aquaculture activity. The main objective is to characterise the surface and subsurface dynamics of MHWs and MCSs, assess their spatial variability among large basins and narrow fjords, identify their drivers, and evaluate their ecological implications.
A multi-scale approach was applied, moving from offshore to coastal environments and from surface to subsurface layers. At large scale, satellite reanalysis data at low resolution (0.25°) were used to identify patterns, long-term trends and main drivers of MHWs in Central and Southern Chile, regions previously unexplored in this context. At finer scale, a novel methodology was developed, merging over three decades of in situ observations with satellite products to generate high-resolution (900 m) temperature fields for Northern Patagonia. This allowed the detection of extreme events across fjords and basins and the assessment of their spatial and temporal variability. Subsurface dynamics where also explored with a hydrodynamic model to evaluate the vertical extent of MHWs and MCS and the relation between surface and subsurface events. Additionally, the potential role of MHWs in promoting harmful algal blooms (HABs) was investigated.
Results show that Central Chile and Northern and Southern Patagonia experienced more than 70 MHWs over the past four decades. Northern Patagonia displays the strongest warming trends and is the only subregion with a significant increase in MHW frequency, with more than 30 events in the past decade alone, while MCSs show an overall decline. In this region, the spatial heterogeneity is particularly pronounced, depending mostly on the topography and stratification: stratified fjords experienced stronger anomalies (up to 5°C), whereas more homogeneous basins exhibited weaker events (below 2°C). Major MHWs occurred in 1997-98, 2008 and 2016-17, with contrasting subsurface penetration. The 1997-98 event shown rapid propagation to the bottom layers, while the 2016-17 event remained confined to the upper layers. Similarly, a prolonged series of MCSs affected intermediate layers from 2019 to 2024, while the main events were registered in 2007-08. For both MHWs and MCSs, subsurface anomalies were generally more intense below the low-salinity surface layer and considerably longer-lasting than those at the surface, with events extending over several months or years, with the extreme example of a MCS that lasted from 2022 to 2024 in the deep layers of Reloncaví Sound. Atmospheric forcings, particularly wind and solar radiation, were identified as key local drivers, while large-scale climate modes such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) amplified event intensity and duration. Finally, a link was established between MHWs and HAB development, with evidence that MHWs act as a catalyst for A. catenella blooms by creating favourable environmental conditions when sufficient nutrients are available.
This work provides the first integrated assessment of MHWs and MCSs in Central and Southern Chile, particularly in Northern Patagonia, demonstrating the importance of high-resolution approaches for capturing their complexity in coastal systems and highlighting implications for ecosystem functioning, fisheries and aquaculture management.