Headnote
ABSTRACT
Objective: To analyze the impacts of climate change on indigenous peoples located in the Amazon biome, specifically the repercussions related to violence and vulnerabilities resulting from such changes.
Theoretical Framework: Due to the history of expropriation resulting from colonialism, the colonialities that are perpetuated (Quijano, 1992) and, above all, as a result of the hegemonic model of development, indigenous peoples constitute one of the populations most affected by climate change (Giannini et al. 2023).
Method: Integrative literature review, linked to the multicenter research "Climate Change, Indigenous Health and Environmental Migrations in the context of different biomes in Brazil", funded by CNPq. Conducted in the Scopus, Sage and Wiley databases, the time frame was between 2014 and 2024, with a final sample of 17 articles.
Results and Discussion: The main forms of violence and vulnerabilities caused by climate change to indigenous peoples in the Amazon were the impacts on food and survival, violation of the rights of these peoples and land grabbing, which has led to the spread of diseases, forced migrations and processes of cultural loss. Addressing these issues requires changing the development model and extractive logic
Research Implications: The study provides a basis for the urgency of guaranteeing indigenous rights and recognizing the rights of nature, expanding spaces for evoking indigenous worldviews and their leading role in territorial and environmental management, pointing out possible paths to the sustainability of the planet
Originality/Value: The findings provide original insights by highlighting indigenous protagonism as a central element for planetary sustainability, by proposing a paradigm shift that challenges the hegemonic development model and by pointing to alternatives based on climate justice.
Keywords: Climate Change, Indigenous Peoples, Amazon, Violence.
RESUMO
Objetivo: Analisar os impactos das mudancas climáticas sobre os povos indígenas situados no bioma Amazônia, especificamente as repercussões relacionadas às violências e vulnerabilidades decorrentes de tais mudanças.
Referencial Teórico: Devido ao histórico de expropriação decorrente do colonialismo, das colonialidades que se perpetuam (Quijano, 1992) e, sobretudo, em decorrência do modelo hegemônico de desenvolvimento, os povos indi genas constituem uma das populações mais afetadas pelas mudanças climáticas (Giannini et al. 2023).
Método: Revisão integrativa da literatura, vinculada a pesquisa multicêntrica "Mudanças Climáticas, Saúde Indi gena e Migrações Ambientais no contexto de distintos biomas no Brasil", financiada pelo CNPq. Realizada nas bases de dados, Scopus, Sage e Wiley, com recorte temporal de 2014 a 2024, amostra final de 17 artigos
Resultados e Discussão: As principais violências e vulnerabilidades provocadas pelas mudanças climáticas aos povos indígenas da Amazônia, foram os impactos na alimentaça~o e sobrevivência, violação dos direitos desses povos e grilagem de terras, o que tem implicado na propagação de doenças, migrações forcadas e processos de perda cultural. O enfrentamento de tais questões exige a mudança do modelo de desenvolvimento e da lógica extrativista
Implicações da Pesquisa: O estudo fornece embasamento sobre a urgência da garantia dos direitos indígenas e o reconhecimento dos direitos da natureza, a ampliação de espaços de evocação das cosmovisões indígenas e do seu protagonismo na gestão territorial e ambiental, apontando possíveis caminhos para a sustentabilidade do planeta
Originalidade/Valor: Os achados fornecem insights originais ao destacar o protagonismo indígena como elemento central para a sustentabilidade planetária, ao propor uma mudança de paradigma que desafia o modelo hegemônico de desenvolvimento e ao apontar para alternativas baseadas em justiça climática.
Palavras-chaves: Mudancas Climáticas, Povos Indígenas, Amazônia, Violências.
RESUMEN
Objetivo: Analizar los impactos del cambio climático sobre los pueblos indígenas ubicados en el bioma amazónico, específicamente las repercusiones relacionadas con la violencia y las vulnerabilidades derivadas de dichos cambios.
Marco teórico: Debido a la historia de expropiación derivada del colonialismo, de las colonialidades que se perpetúan (Quijano, 1992) y sobre todo, como consecuencia del modelo hegemónico de desarrollo, los pueblos indígenas constituyen una de las poblaciones más afectadas por los cambios climáticos (Giannini et al. 2023).
Método: Revisión integradora de la literatura, vinculada a la investigación multicéntrica "Cambio climático, salud indi gena y migraciones ambientales en el contexto de diferentes biomas en Brasil", financiada por el CNPq. Realizado en las bases de datos Scopus, Sage y Wiley, el marco temporal fue entre 2014 y 2024, con una muestra final de 17 artículos.
Resultados y Discusión: Las principales violencias y vulnerabilidades causadas por el cambio climático a los pueblos indígenas de la Amazonía fueron los impactos a la alimentación y supervivencia, la vulneración de los derechos de estos pueblos y el acaparamiento de tierras, lo que ha conllevado la propagación de enfermedades, migraciones forzadas y procesos de pérdida cultural. Para abordar estos problemas es necesario cambiar el modelo de desarrollo y la lógica extractiva.
Implicaciones de la investigación: El estudio fundamenta la urgencia de garantizar los derechos indígenas y reconocer los derechos de la naturaleza, ampliando espacios de evocación de las cosmovisiones indígenas y su protagonismo en la gestión territorial y ambiental, señalando posibles caminos para la sostenibilidad del planeta.
Originalidad/Valor: Los hallazgos aportan visiones originales al destacar el protagonismo indígena como elemento central para la sostenibilidad planetaria, al proponer un cambio de paradigma que desafía el modelo hegemónico de desarrollo y al señalar alternativas basadas en la justicia climática.
Palabras clave: Cambio Climático, Pueblos Indígenas, Amazonía, Violencia.
1 INTRODUCTION o^ The Amazon is the largest rainforest and the largest river system on the planet. e ê Home to about 10% of the known species, their ecosystems offer livelihoods and are an integral part of the cultures of i , riverside and regional urban population (Burrier, 2016). Brazil has almost 7% of the world's á reserves, mainly due a` o^ Amazon Basin, which covers about 7 million km2. It is the largest river drainage basin on the planet, roughly equivalent to the size of the Gulf of e and Caribbean Sea combined. In e , Brazil is home to six of the twenty-five largest rivers in the world (Lapola, et al, 2020).
The Amazon is an extremely complex region, which has historically been treated from the colonial-capitalist perspective as a stock of infinite natural resources and a demographic void. Both interpretations are absolutely wrong, given that nature and its biodiversity are not inexhaustible and indigenous peoples have been there for hundreds of years, long before the founding of the nation-states. These misconceptions are clear in the current context of the planet's environmental and climate crisis.
Indigenous peoples are very clear about the magnitude, finitude and complexity of the forest and all nature. Historically they have elaborated distinct worldviews and epistemologies that demonstrate expanded perspectives, anchored in relations (material and symbolic) inseparable between human beings and the other beings that make up the ecosystems and environments existing on the planet (Krenak, 2020).
Despite the narrative of the demographic void of the Amazon, indigenous peoples have resisted centuries of extermination and oppression. Data from the last demographic census indicate that in 2022 the ça~ i o^indigenous population of Brazil reached 1,693,535 inhabitants, among them, 51.2% being located in the Amazon. The North (44.48%) and the Northeast (31.22%) a~ õ the two regions with the highest concentration çõindigenousi populations in its territoryo river. Amazonas e the state with the highest ú i of indigenous people in its territoryo river, a total of 490.9 thousand, divided into about 180 distinct peoples (FUNAI, 2023).
i Due to the history of expropriation resulting from colonialism, colonialities that are perpetuated and, above all, due to the hegemonic model of development, based on the hyper exploitation of nature and the workforce (Krenak, 2020; Moore, 2022), indigenous peoples constitute one of the populations most affected by climate change (Giannini et al. 2023). o^ Corroborating, Burrier (2016) points out that the spiritual, cultural and subsistence relationship that indigenous peoples maintain with their territories makes them more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change that affect the Amazon.
Several authors highlight that the development model has affected populations unequally, deeply impacting vulnerable social groups, historically racialised and subjected to colonialities, which has led to environmental and climate injustice, in addition to deepening health inequities that corroborate the illnesses and injuries in these populations (Hacon and Schramm, 2023; Acelrad, 2022; Carneiro et al, 2015).
Given the environmental and climate crisis installed at the planetary level, considering one of the serious threats to the survival of indigenous peoples and the preservation of the Amazon, this article aims to analyse the impacts of climate change on indigenous peoples located in the Amazon biome, specifically the repercussions related to violence and vulnerabilities resulting from such changes.
This integrative literature review study, conducted in order to seek scientific evidence that theoretically subsidise fieldwork, is a part of the multicentre research, entitled "Climate Change, Indigenous Health and Environmental Migration in the context of different biomes in Brazil", funded by CNPq, which is being implemented in 10 Indigenous Territories located in Brazilian territory of different biomes.
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Climate change is one of the greatest global challenges of the 21st century, affecting not only ecosystems, but also human societies, especially people who maintain a direct and intrinsic relationship with nature, as is the case of Indigenous populations.
Indigenous peoples are among those most affected by climate change, although they are the ones who most effectively protect the territories' environment. Environmental degradation, rising temperatures, loss of biodiversity and scarcity of natural resources directly impact their traditional ways of life. Giannini et al. (2023) highlight that the traditional knowledge of these peoples is fundamental for the construction of effective climate adaptation strategies, promoting true climate justice.
Climate justice stems from the recognition that climate change impacts are not equitably distributed among populations. According to Araujo (2022), climate justice is the principle that seeks to ensure that the burdens and benefits of environmental policies are distributed equitably, ensuring the human and environmental rights of marginalised populations.
In indigenous culture, harmonious contact with the environment and spirituality are a~ fully linked a` nature, fauna, flora and ecosystems. The ancestral wisdom and cultural áhabits of the e indigenous peoples are built, based and lived through relationships ~ e a~ a~ õ i i the respect and harmony with their environment, which is understood and experienced as a source of resources, but as an integral part of their universe, which unites living and living beings, forming a large web of spiritual and i connections, which can lose its balancei e brio because of any sign of disharmony (Porto, 2023). Thus, the Earth e i perceived by indigenous peoples as part of themselves, always present in all phases or çõ i s of the lives of individuals and collectives (Porto, 2023), thus building their sense of identity and belonging (Chaves-Agudelo, et al, 2015).
In this sense, the climate and environmental impacts reach unique proportions and their effects can be devastating on the life, culture, physical and mental health of these peoples, since the right to territory is a sine qua non condition for the health of this population. According to recent studies, indigenous peoples experience emotional suffering intensified by the loss of territory, destruction of ecosystems and threats to their cultural identity. Recognising these impacts is essential for the development of culturally sensitive health policies, as the health of indigenous peoples is directly impacted by climate change (Pereira and Terrenas, 2022) and environmental changes.
Another deleterious impact that extreme climatic events and anthropogenic changes have caused, refers to significant population displacements. In Brazil, some regions have witnessed the migration of entire communities in search of more favourable living conditions, which profoundly alters the local social and economic dynamics. Indigenous communities are among these communities that migrate due to climate change (Marques and Oliveira, 2016).
The concept of environmental migrants has been gaining relevance in society and in the legal debate. Machado (2024) points to the need for legal frameworks that recognise and protect these populations, highlighting that migration law needs to evolve to deal with the challenges posed by climate change and environmental collapse.
Finally, it can be alluded that the intersection between climate change and Indigenous peoples reveals a complex and multifaceted reality that requires intersectoral and interdisciplinary responses. In this context, the recognition of traditional knowledge, the guarantee of rights and legal protection are fundamental steps to face the impacts of the climate crisis in a fair and effective way.
3 METHODOLOGY
This is an integrative literature review that focused on the following research question: "What are the main violence and vulnerabilities faced by the indigenous peoples of the Amazon as consequences of the phenomena of climate change?".
This article is limited only to the analysis of the impacts of climate change on indigenous peoples located in the Amazon biome, specifically the repercussions related to violence and vulnerabilities resulting from such changes, given the limits of space as opposed to the volume of data collected and analysed.
The literature review is a research method that enables the search, evaluation and synthesis of evidence and information available on a topic (Dias, et al. 2022). Gonçalvez (2019) establishes six steps for an integrative review: (1) selection of the theme; (2) establishment of inclusion criteria; (3) definition of the information to be extracted from the studies; (4) evaluation of the studies; (5) interpretation of the results; (6) presentation of the review.
The search for the articles was carried out in three scientific publication databases: Scopus, Sage and Wiley, with a temporal cut between the years 2014 to 2024. This time frame was established following the deepening of the cycle of capital accumulation based on developmental and neocolonialist logics, which lead to a new race for natural and energy resources, interfering in global geopolitics. In line with this context, the period is also marked by the increase in burned and deforested areas in the Amazon (Pelicice and Castello, 2021).
The search strategies were constructed using the acronym PECO, being P-population; E-exposure; C-comparison; O-outcomes (Collaboration for Environmental Evidence, 2013). The following keywords were then used: P = indigenous peoples (indigenous people); E = climate change (climate change); C = Amazon; O = one or more of the following phenomena: violence (violence), vulnerabilities (vulnerability), indigenous health (indigenous health), forest fires (wildfires) and mining (mining). The initial search for the literature resulted in the selection of 731 articles.
From the initial sample, duplicates were excluded, representing a total of 48 articles, resulting in a sample of 683 articles. The texts of the new sample were classified according to their scientific basis and publication date. After this survey, the Evaluation 1 process began, which consists of reading the titles and abstracts, in this reading the following criteria were applied: year of publication, between 2014 and 2024 and theme, the article needed to address indigenous peoples; climate change; and the Amazon as a territory. At the end of the evaluation, the new sample totalled 57 articles.
Then proceeded to Evaluation 2, intended for the full reading of the articles, this evaluation was applied to the following inclusion criteria: address indigenous peoples and climate change in the same text; have as main focus the Amazon; be in public access. At the end of this stage, the final sample of the study consisted of 17 articles, all in English, 7 from the Sage database and 10 from Wiley.
Data analysis was performed based on a matrix that included the following registration units: author, title, objective, method, conclusions, countries analysed, climate change and/or environmental changes, violence and vulnerabilities.
4 RESULTSS AND DISCUSSÕES
It is notorious the social, environmental, health and geopolitical relevance of the theme about the impacts of climate change on indigenous peoples in the Amazon. However, it is noticed that the approaches are still predominantly fragmented, with a vast number of publications dedicated to the analysis of environmental impacts in the Amazon biome, but when this theme is crossed with others, such as health, violence, rights of indigenous peoples, there is a significant drop in the number of publications.
Among all the articles analysed, 70% were published between 2020 and 2024, which suggests an increase in scientific concerns with the theme, in line with the increase in climate emergency events around the world and the notorious expansion of the political agenda at the global level.
It is noteworthy that the articles analysed addressed the pan-Amazonian context, specifically 08 countries whose territories encompass the Amazon biome, namely: Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, French Guiana and Suriname. The main climate changes, environmental changes and impacts on indigenous peoples were identified by article and by country, in order to allow a reading of the key issues that have repercussions and possible elements that intersect, as shown in Table 1.
ê The categorisation of the articles allowed to list the violence and vulnerabilities that affect the i o^ peoples in the Amazon. According to the literature, the main vulnerabilities promoted by á ê ê ç climate change are: impacts on food and survival (N = 12), rights violation (N = 12), land grabbing (N = 12), violence (N = 9), migrationa~ ç ç a~ ç ç ú ç õforged (N = 7), cultural loss (N = 7), disease propagation (N = 7), anti-drug action (N = 5), difficulties in accessing sacobrias (N = 2) and prejudice and discrimination (N = 2).
E^ 4.1 IMPACTS ON FOOD AND SURVIVAL
Climate changes ç á i cause several damages to the o ê territory, food insecurity is one of them, which greatly compromises the survival of i peoples (Diversi, 2014). On this, Burrier (2016) points out that the decrease in the level of river navigation and changes in the normal patterns of fish migration, lead to interruption of transport and trade, directly affecting populations that survive from fishing, with repercussions that impact the entire local production chain, including consumers.
Pelicice & Castello (2021) point out the impacts of climate change á on the maintenance the ~ of the territory o o^the Amazon River, whose repercussions affect the livelihoods and survival of indigenous peoples:
These impacts compromise the provision tõ ç êo of many ecosystem services that a~ important to society a`the local, regional and global scales, including the maintenance ç a~ á ç a~ biodiversity, water quality, flow regime, carbon cycle, climate and food production. The Amazon o^ demands a~ urgent ç (Pelicice & Castello, 2021, p.6)
The construction the ~ e of hydropower plants causes profound changes ç i and damage to the aquá systems of the Amazono^ ç õ i n, affecting the indigenous populations present in the territories. The flooding of large á ç, the destruction of sacred spaces and the pollution a~ i ç water bodies are some of the aspects that directly affect the food qualitya~that of i peoples (Diversi, 2014; Chaves-Agudelo, et al, 2015). Burrier (2016) points out that although dams are legally prohibited from flooding indigenous i ç in Brazil, indirect effects, such as the reduction a~ fish stocks, have profoundly affected indigenous peoples, especially the Karipuna, Karitiana, Kassupá and Salama~i (Burrier, 2016).
Chaves-Agudelo, et al. (2015) and Lynch et al. (2018), point out the profound impacts caused by the use of pesticides to destroy illegal plantations - employed in the context of Colombia - which resulted in cases of child mortality, abortions, ç e ç diseases, death of domestic animals, pollutiona~of áwater and the destruction ç a~ i oço of crops that would be used for collective consumption of indigenous. In addition, High (2020), states that environmental degradation caused by the ç o i of oil in indigenous lands, is a serious threat to Indigenous livelihoods. In his research, focused on the scenario of the Ecuadorian Amazon, he presents a report by one of the leaders the Waorani people on the impacts that oil exploitation in indigenous lands promotes:
á Our land is full of life. Inside the jungle are sacred animals, our rivers, our community, and e 's what we want to protect. Our land e our life, without our land we cannot live. We're here, all the community o together, to tell you, many other communities have come to support us. They will demand our rights and we hope that they [the government] will listen to us and respect us, respect our lives. á Our land is not a` sale. (Waorani apud High, 2020, p.304)
4.2 RIGHTS VIOLATION, LAND GRABBING AND VIOLENCE
Violation of indigenous rights e still a very frequent reality, although Brazil is not the only country i e Latin America that faces such a challenge. The Latin American context carries with it the marks of colonialities (Quijano, 1992) and, as such, the domain of the elites in the conformation of their structures, which has always resulted in correlations of political forces unfavourable to the emancipation and guarantee of rights of these peoples (Grosfoguel, 2016).
i Land grabbing in indigenous lands e one of the diseases that appears most ê ç in the sample, mainly linked to developmentalism and exploration activities, especially wood, mineralsa~and oil (Chaves-Agudelo et al, 2015; Garcia et al, 2021; High, 2020, Tigre, 2021). In this sense, Tebutt (2021) draws ç i to how the lack of ú ç policies and environmental efforts contribute to the process of illegal õ invasions in i lands.
Violence ê i against indigenous peoples á o ç linked to historical processes of exploitation of natural resources, productiona~the agro-industrial, internal conflicts, war a` ç õ i drugs (in the Colombian Amazon) and government actions that can criminalise or harm the indigenous and environmental struggle (High 2020; Pereira and Terrenas, 2022; Eufemia, et al, 2022).
i Most of the violent crimes and murders against indigenous peoples and environmental activists in the global context a~ linked a` the ê i resistance offered by them against the violation of indigenous rights, which ê in response to ç õ i i violent acts of genocide and ecocide (Lynch et al, 2018). ê These authors also point out the impacts of anti-drug actions on the violence suffered by indigenous i in the context of Colombia, which often ç displacement.
In Brazil, the ~ i s invasions of indigenous lands and the murder of i i indigenous leaders, as well as other environmental and human rights defenders have increased since the anti õ ç a~ ç a~ ç a~ ç ç õ o a~ a^ ç a~s promoted by the Bolsonaro government (Pereira & Terrenas, 2022), which included the alteration of the environmental legislation to favour sectors such as minerals, deforestationand cağa, making punishments milder and extinguishing the registries of vigilance and environmental protection (Salles et al, 2023). e , during this administration, the government tried to reduce the á of conservation tõ and the territorieso i rivers demarcated as indigenous lands, thus perpetuating the violation of their rights.
In relation tõthe a` o^ of Colombia, Chaves-Agudelo et al, (2015) point out that the vulnerability of local communities to a`s invading õ of their territory o e õ ç a~river, increased by the invasions of armed groups, which invade their lands with an interest in exploring.
High (2020) points out that in Ecuador, due to a` tense~ o i generated by the government's interest in exploiting oil in indigenous lands, there has been a media á process to promote prejudice and discrimination the ~ i ê against indigenous peoples, so that violence against them has increased.
4.3 FORCED MIGRATION, CULTURAL LOSSES AND DISCRIMINATION
Abstract: The migration tõthe foradaç i ad of e ç indigenous peoples is presented in the literature mainly linked to the processes of exploitationa~ ç a~ ç a~ a~ i a~o of natural resources and globalizaõ'o, which promoted the growth of environmental exploitation, invasions of indigenous lands by armed groups, poverty and social exclusion (Lynch, Stretesky & Long, 2018; Burrier, 2016; Pereira & Terrenas, 2022).
i o^ Arruda, et al. (2024) add other problems that lead to the forced migration of indigenous peoples in the Amazon, such as: ê, persecution i policy, construction of hydroelectric dams, use of pesticides to destroy illegal plantations. In fact, Diversi (2014) points out that the process of building the ~ ç and operatinga~ e the hydroelectric dams e an important factor that historically contributed to the process of migratingç õ ç i ç a~ ç a~ ç o es of indigenous peoples in Brazil, such as the construction of the Belo Monte Dam, which devastated immense areas of Brazilian tropical forest, resulting in the migration of 20 to 40 thousand people living in flooded territories. o^ It should be noted that this phenomenon is not new, since it had a strong impulse from the 60s and 70s, evidenced in the construction of the Tucurui Power Plant, started in 1974 and completed in 1984, which caused the displacement of about 32,000 people who a~ not received State support (Burrier, 2016).
It is noteworthy that one of the main problems associated with forced migration concerns cultural losses and the difficulty of perpetuating their ancestral practices, which generates symbolic ruptures in the processes of memory, history, preservation of their worldviews and ways of life. ç Lynch et al. (2018) report that displaced peopleõre very difficult to return to their o territory. Collaborating, Pelicice and Castello (2021), when discussing the long-term consequences of the loss of preservationa~ i ê çthe indigenous culture, warn of a possible large-scale degradation ça~of the biodiversity, ecosystems and culture of the Amazon.
4.4 SPREAD OF DISEASES AS AND DIFFICULTY IN ACCESSING HEALTH SERVICES
Climate change á also promote e spread of diseases i among the indigenous peoples of the Amazono^as well as difficulties in accessing health services. River transport is essential in the Amazon, however, weather events make navigation difficult, often isolating communities and disrupting the supply of food and health services (Boff and Franco, 2021).
The spread of diseases has a histo rich connectionç with ç colonisationa~ ç and exploits a~ o^ resources of the Amazon, as pointed out by Porto (2023, p.3):
Since the arrival of the whites a` South e á, five e i centuries ago, the indigenous peoples have resisted a long process of i ê ~ ç extermination, either by the direct violence of colonisers, farmers, prospectors and others interested in exploiting their lands, or by the disseminationof the diseases brought by these foreigners. i Since the smallpox and measles epidemics brought by the Portuguese invaders in the sixteenth e e until the úlast COVID-19 pandemic, diseases ç from outside have ê i been one of the main causes of death among indigenous peoples (Porto, 2023, p.3).
á Similar to deforestation and fires, increased biodiversity loss is directly linked to increased spread of diseases (Lapola, et al, 2020). The ç o^ e of Amazonian fauna and flora, mainly through deforestation, increase the proximity and contact between human and animal peoples, promoting the spread ça~the spread of zoonoses among i (Tigre, 2021). In this sense, Du Plessi, (2018, p.402) - in his study centred on the Peruvian Amazon - states that the increase in global temperature causes changes ç o^ the ecosystems of the Amazon, contributing to the spread of ç diseases, since, as noted:
Vegetation a~ i i çthe creeping characteristic of agriculture provides a very propitious environment for the reproductiona~o of mosquitoes, with increased á e ç á ê and air temperatures, in addition to many poaAs d'gua for egg laying, which causes mosquitoes to reproduce more frequently and, consequently, become more blood-hungry (Du Plessis, 2018, p.402).
á Another factor pointed out in the literature as responsible for the increase in ç diseases in the ça~ i i indigenous population was the use of agrochemicals in anti-drug government ç õ ç in the context of the Colombian Amazon, which caused shortand long-term diseases, abortions and cases of stillbirths in Indigenous communities (Chaves-Agudelo, et al, 2015).
It should be noted that the use and aerial spraying of pesticides are not restricted to the aforementioned context of the fight against drugs in Colombia. In Brazil, the large-scale use of pesticides and their aerial spraying is widely used by the agribusiness productive sector. The country is the locus of numerous pesticides banned worldwide and authorised in the national territory, despite the warning of most scientific institutions in the field of global public health, as well as research pointing to the impacts of pesticides on human health and environmental health (Carneiro et al, 2015).
It should be noted that for years the Indigenous Movement and indigenous organisations in Brazil have denounced sectors of agribusiness by aerial spraying of pesticides on indigenous communities and accuse this segment of adopting such a practice as a strategy of war against indigenous peoples, given the extent of the impacts of such events on the health and maintenance of life of these peoples (CIMI, 2024).
5 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
The effects of climate change on indigenous peoples located in the Amazon biome are devastating and put at risk the possibility of production and reproduction of the lives of these peoples, highlighting the deepening of environmental and climate injustice, as well as the impacts on the environmental preservation of the Amazon.
Environmental exploitation is advancing widely, especially in recent times, which has had an expressive impact on the destruction of lifestyles and living conditions of indigenous peoples located in the Amazon. This has deepened historical iniquities and colonialities that perpetuate the subjugation of such peoples and exacerbate the unequal condition of levels of economic development of the Amazonian i o^ and the Global South.
In this sense, it is urgent that the demarcation of Indigenous Lands be effected and expanded in order to guarantee the right to the territory and, consequently, the right of existence of these peoples, as well as the preservation and environmental protection, sustained for centuries by them. In the context of Brazil, the Federal Constitution of 1988 recognises the right to territory, inscribed in Article 231, although the pressures of political forces aligned with agribusiness, mining, mining, logging, oil, to name a few, constitute permanent obstacles within the scope of the National Congress, obstructing the guarantee of the rights of indigenous peoples, protection and environmental sustainability.
It is noted that the global confrontation with the impacts of climate change requires the change of the development model, as well as the guarantee (national and global) of the rights of indigenous peoples and the recognition of the rights of nature, as premises for the construction of political strategies capable of facing such a situation. Thus, it is urgent to build new forms of governance that guarantee dialogue and effect indigenous leadership in the processes of territorial and environmental management, providing spaces for the evocation of indigenous worldviews and possible solutions in the direction of mitigation, adaptation and sustainability of all forms of life and the planet.
The intersectoral articulation of public policies is also a condition for building responses to the environmental and climate crisis, which necessarily implies overcoming the binomial man-nature and the immediate break with the neoextractivist logic that commoditizes nature, subtracts indigenous rights and confiscates the right to life of future generations and all human and non-human beings who coexist on Earth.
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