Content area
This study investigates translanguaging practices in Indonesian secondary English classrooms and analyzes how teachers and students use multiple languages to enrich the learning experience. Drawing on observations, interviews, and field notes from two teachers and four students in West Java, the study found that translanguaging fosters student comprehension, confidence, and identity affirmation. Teachers strategically used English, Indonesian, and Sundanese to scaffold instruction across various phases, creating an inclusive learning environment. Students responded positively, pointing to a reduction in anxiety and improved participation. These findings are consistent with sociocultural learning theories and challenge monolingual ideologies. The study concludes that translanguaging is an effective pedagogical tool to promote equal language learning. However, limitations include the small size of the sample and the short time span of data collection , which may affect the universality. Future research should extend beyond context and include longitudinal analysis to assess the long-term impacts. This research adds to the growing evidence that supports multilingual pedagogies in diverse educational settings.
This study investigates translanguaging practices in Indonesian secondary English classrooms and analyzes how teachers and students use multiple languages to enrich the learning experience. Drawing on observations, interviews, and field notes from two teachers and four students in West Java, the study found that translanguaging fosters student comprehension, confidence, and identity affirmation. Teachers strategically used English, Indonesian, and Sundanese to scaffold instruction across various phases, creating an inclusive learning environment. Students responded positively, pointing to a reduction in anxiety and improved participation. These findings are consistent with sociocultural learning theories and challenge monolingual ideologies. The study concludes that translanguaging is an effective pedagogical tool to promote equal language learning. However, limitations include the small size of the sample and the short time span of data collection , which may affect the universality. Future research should extend beyond context and include longitudinal analysis to assess the long-term impacts. This research adds to the growing evidence that supports multilingual pedagogies in diverse educational settings.
Keywords: translanguaging, multilingual education, EFL classroom, Indonesia, language identity, student engagement, sociocultural theory
Introduction
Indonesia is recognized worldwide for its extraordinary linguistic diversity, second only to Papua New Guinea in terms of the number of living languages spoken. With more than 700 languages across its archipelago (Simons & Fennig, 2017a), the country home to a rich linguistic mosaic which shapes the sociocultural and educational environment. This multilingualism presents both unique opportunities and critical challenges in the context of English language teaching. Despite the prevalence of English as a subject of national importance, language education in Indonesia has historically been run on a monolingual ideology, often marginalizing the native language of students and promoting an English-only approach. This has resulted in teaching constraints, especially in multilingual classrooms where learners' diverse linguistic resources are ignored or undervalued.
The emergence of translanguaging as a pedagogical paradigm marks a major shift in language education. Translanguaging refers to the strategic use of a learner's entire linguistic repertoire of a learner in a single communicative or instructional event (García & Wei, 2014). Unlike traditional code-switching, which separates languages along functional lines, translanguaging acknowledges the fluid, integrated nature of bilingual and multilingual language use. Recent trends in ELT reflect this shift, as global Englishes (GE) frameworks promote linguistic flexibility and contextual responsiveness (Baker et al., 2024; Suzuki & Crowther, 2024). This calls for an end to monolingual standards and calls for inclusive practices by teachers to recognize and validate the students' native language.
In the multilingual context of Southeast Asian, including Indonesia, translanguaging has gained momentum as a method to improve understanding and engagement of students. Studies show that allowing students to switch between languages in the classroom enhances their ability to process complex information and participate meaningfully in learning activities (Li-Juan & Rolstad, 2022; Phyak et al., 2022). In this context, teachers often tailor their use of language to the linguistic dynamics of their classrooms and use bilingual or trilingual strategies that take into account the linguistic reality of their students (Kamaşak & Şahan, 2023). These practices have been shown to increase student participation and to reduce the barriers often created by English-only instruction (Boonsuk et al., 2022).
Despite these promising findings, translanguaging in Indonesia is still often misunderstood. It is sometimes viewed as a remedial or compensatory strategy that undermines English proficiency, rather than as a legitimate and powerful instructional approach. This perception reflects wider tensions between global educational ideologies and local sociolinguistic conditions. For example, policymakers often prioritize the acquisition of English as prerequisite for economic and global competitiveness, and they promote curricula that emphasize standard forms of language and discourage the use of local languages in academic contexts (Manan & Hajar, 2024; Zhang-Wu, 2022). These policies may alienate students and teachers and create a disconnect between educational policy and classroom practice (Eger & Valdez, 2023).
However, educators are beginning to recognize the limitations of monolingual teaching in multilingual classrooms. Research shows that the exlusion of students' native language may result in reduced identity reassurance, increased language anxiety, and reduced academic achievement (Chang-Bacon & Salerno, 2023; Song et al., 2023). Conversly, approaches to teaching that take account of linguistic diversity, such as translanguaging, have been shown to promote a balanced learning environments. By allowing students to draw on their full linguistic repertoire, teachers can promote more inclusive and effective language instruction (Wesley-Nero & Donley, 2024).
In the context of Indonesian, several recent studies have highlighted the role of translanguaging in improving English proficiency. For example, Khairunnisa & Lukmana (2020) found that translanguaging practices reduced the anxiety of students and improved classroom interaction. Similarly, Sapitri et al. (2018) noted that teachers strategically used Indonesian and local languages to clarify complex concepts, which allow students to understand. Despite these benefits, translanguaging is still underused, partly due to institutional constraints and lack of teacher training on multilingual pedagogy (Hamid & Ali, 2023). This results in a gap in teaching which this study aims to fill.
Our study focuses on the translanguaging practices in secondary English classrooms in Indonesia, with particular attention to how teachers use multiple languages to scaffold their instruction and how students respond to these strategies. Drawing on socio-cultural theory and translanguaging frameworks, our research examines how classroom practices are aligned with the theoretical principles of multilingual education. Exploring the pedagogical implications of translanguaging, in particular in relation to reducing language anxiety, improving understanding, and reaffirming the multilingual identity of students.
Our research also looks at the wider socio-political context of language learning in Indonesia and recognizes that attitudes towards translanguaging are shaped not only by classroom dynamics but also by policy decisions, cultural norms, and historical language ideologies (Phyak et al., 2022; Sohn et al., 2022). Although some teachers consider translanguaging as empowering, institutional barriers and traditional expectations often limit their ability to fully implement such practices. This tension underlines the need for systemic change, including professional development programs, curriculum reform, and policy initiatives to promote multilingual education (Fang et al., 2022).
Importantly, the study is informed by the belief that effective language teaching must reflect the lived linguistic experiences of learners. Recognizing students' home language as an asset rather than barrier can increase cognitive engagement, foster emotional well-being and create a more inclusive learning environment (Choi et al., 2023; Rodriguez-Mojica et al., 2024). By adopting translanguaging strategies, educators can create learning environments that are not only linguistically responsive but also culturally supportive. This is especially important in Indonesia, where linguistic identity is strongly linked to regional and ethnic heritage.
Our research focuses on two main questions: (1) How do translanguaging strategies used by secondary-school English teachers fit in, build onor deviate from established theoretical frameworks for multilingual education? and (2) In what ways do students' attitudes, perceptions, and classroom experiences with translanguaging support or challenge the theoretical claims about the role of translanguaging in reducing linguistic anxiety, improving understanding, and promoting multilingual identity in the contexts of EFL?
Our study contributes to the growing body of literature promoting the integration of translanguaging into formal education. It responds to the urgent need for empirical evidence from underrepresented contexts such as Indonesia, where multilingualism is the norm but is often not recognized in formal pedagogical practices. By bringing together the voices and experiences of teachers and students, we aim to provide practical insights to educators, policymakers, and teachers to build more inclusive and effective English language classrooms.
Finally, we argue that translanguaging is not a marginal or remedial practice but a fundamental component of equal language learning in multilingual settings. By gaining a deeper understanding of how translanguaging functions in Indonesian secondary schools, we are seeking to inform future directions in language pedagogy, teacher training, and educational policy. In doing so, we aim to bridge the gap between linguistic theory and classroom practice and to demonstrate that inclusive and culturally relevant teaching approaches are necessary to promote meaningful and transformative experiences in language learning.
Literature Review
Introduction to Translanguaging
The term "translanguaging" originated from Welsh bilingual education, which was originally defined as a deliberate pedagogical strategy that uses different languages for classroom input and output, with the aim of increasing both language skills (Lewis et al., 2012). García (2009) expanded on this concept, describing translanguaging as a dynamic process in which bilingual individuals use their full language repertoire to navigate their bilingual worlds effectively. García and Wei (2014) argue that multilingual individuals have a single integrated language system rather than separate language systems, which allows for a flexible and integrated use of language resources (Otheguy et al., 2015).
Translanguaging has become increasingly important in English Language Teaching (ELT), as it gives multilingual students with opportunities to use their full language repertoire and thus promotes an inclusive and interactive learning environments. Recent research has highlighted translanguaging spaces where students combine life experiences with academic content, enriching the interactions between the classroom (Oliver et al., 2020; Phyak et al., 2022). Menken and Sánchez (2019) argue for a shift from traditional monolingual learning ideologies to inclusive teaching practices that integrate the linguistic backgrounds of students.
However, the implementation of translanguaging requires careful pedagogical strategies and support. Successful integration involves scaffolding activities (Daniel et al., 2017), the affirmation of the linguistics linguistic identity of students (Kayi-Aydar & Green Eneix, 2019), and the provision of adequate training for teachers (Goodman & Tastanbek, 2020; Tai & Wei, 2023).
Theoretical Framework
Translanguaging, grounded in sociocultural theory, encourages the use of multilingual learners' full linguistic repertoire to improve communication and understanding. Vygotsky's (1978) sociocultural theory complements translanguaging by emphasizing the importance of social interaction and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and suggests learners deepen their understanding by working together in both native and target languages.
The practical implications of translanguaging pedagogy include adapting curricula to take account of linguistic diversity, using flexible assessment strategies, and implementing targeted teacher training programs. Swain and Lapkin (2013) illustrate these principles clearly (see Table 1), by highlighting the structured use of the first language (L1) to increase the target language (TL) proficiency through collaborative and cognitive learning activities.
Rajendram (2019) also explains the interaction between teacher language policies, parental language discourses and social factors influencing students' translanguaging practices (see Figure 1). Students engage in translanguaging for mutual language support, peer rapport, confirmation of cultural identity and intercultural links.
Translanguaging in Indonesian ELT Context
Translanguaging has developed in Indonesia as a powerful pedagogical approach in multilingual educational contexts, allowing learners to draw from their full language repertoire to improve language acquisition and increase their participation in the classroom . Given Indonesia's linguistic diversity, which is second worldwide with more than 700 spoken languages (Simons & Fennig, 2017a), translanguaging effectively addresses the problems of traditional monolingual English-only teaching (Afriadi & Hamzah, 2021; Aoyama et al., 2020).
Several recent studies highlight translanguaging's benefits in Indonesian ELT classrooms. Sapitri et al. (2018) identified the key functions of translanguaging consistent with Ferguson's theory of code-switching. Similarly, Azzahra (2023) reported improved comprehension from mixed-language instruction, while Raja et al. (2022) found positive teacher attitudes but cautioned against over-reliance on the native language. Sutrisno (2023) noted an increase in student participation through recognition of language backgrounds, and studies by Yaniafari et al. (2023) and Khairunnisa & Lukmana (2020) emphasized the importance of reducing learner anxiety and improving inclusiveness in the classroom .
Despite these positive results, significant gaps remain, particularly with regard to the specific translanguaging methods used by teachers and the detailed analysis of student perceptions in secondary school . The present micro-ethnographic study addresses these gaps by closely examining the interaction between teacher translanguaging strategies and student experience and attitudes, thus providing a key insight into effective teaching practices in the multilingual education landscape in Indonesia.
Implementing translanguaging effectively requires overcoming challenges such as insufficient teacher training, rigid curriculum guidelines, and widespread misconceptions that view translanguaging negatively (Nurhayati, 2023; Silalahi et al., 2023). Addressing these challenges through targeted professional development, policy adaptation, and increased educational awareness will be vital to realize the transformative potential of translanguaging in Indonesia's ELT context.
Methods
Research Design
The study adopted a participatory qualitative research design, based on the community-based participatory research (CBPR) framework and enhanced by a micro-ethnographic approach. CBPR has provided a collaborative foundation, enabling active engagement between researchers, teachers, and students in the school community (Lucero, 2023; Zhou et al., 2023). By positioning participants as co-researchers, CBPR emphasized the co-construction of knowledge and contextual relevance, and thereby reducing the hierarchy between researchers and participants. Micro-ethnography has also enabled a close analysis of classroom dynamics, capturing the complexity of language practices, discourse, gestures, and interactions in the context of the EFL (Aline & Hosoda, 2024; Lai, 2024).
The choice of micro-ethnography was particularly suitable for examining translanguaging, as it facilitated the exploration of the use of language in realtime in classroom and to gain insights into how teachers and students negotiate meaning across languages. However, this approach is recognized to have limitations, such as limited universality and the possibility of bias on the part of researcher (Miao et al., 2024). These challenges have been addressed through reflexive journaling and peer debriefing to ensure transparency and consistency.
Researcher Positionality
As multilingual teachers and ELT practitioners, researchers brought their experience to the study and contribute to a more empathetic understanding of the reality of the participants. While such positionality enriched the research process, it also required careful reflexive procedures for identifying and minimizing bias. During the study, the researchers kept reflective journals and engaged in collaborative debriefing in order to critically review assumptions and maintain methodological integrity.
Participants and Context
The study was conducted in a secondary school in Karawang, West Java, Indonesia. As in Table 1, the Participants included two English language teachers and four 14-year-old students, all of whom had a bilingual Sundanese-Indonesian background. The teachers had different professional experience: one held a bachelor's degree and 20 years teaching experience, the other had a master's degree and eight years teaching experience.
Participants were selected on the basis of a pursposive sampling selection to ensure that different linguistic experiences were integrated. Ethical considerations were given priority; informed consent was obtained, and pseudonyms were used to protect anonymity. The study environment, which was set in a linguistically rich environment, provided a convincing site for examining translanguaging practices under real classroom conditions. Ethical protocols were strictly adhered to, including informed consent and assurance of participant anonymity. Pseudonyms were used to maintain confidentiality
Data Collection Procedures
The data collection was carried out over two months (from March 30 to May 25, 2023) and involved three methods: semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and fieldwork. The semi-structured interviews with teachers and students took 20 tob25 minutes and explored the experiences of translanguaging. The questions were taken from previous studies (Dougherty, 2019; Rauteda, 2022) and were open-ended to elicit a rich and qualitative response. The interviews were conducted in Bahasa Indonesia, recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. To ensure the accuracy of the translations, the participants checked the English translations.
Classroom observations were made in two EFL classess (90 minutes each) using the Harris (2021) translanguaging checklist. The observationss focused on the frequency, purpose, and types of translanguaging used by both teachers and students. They were triangulated with field notes that documented the classroom context, the behavior of the participants, and the teaching details. Field notes recorded the researchers' reflections and reactions to the interactions in the classroom real time. This method was necessary to contextualize the observation data and to document non-verbal signals which could not be captured by audio recordings.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using the six-phase thematic analysis framework of Braun and Clarke (2006), supported by the literature on qualitative coding (Mendoza et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). The process started with familiarity-reading the transcripts and field notes again and then with open coding, in which meaningful units related to translanguaging were identified.
The codes were then organized into preliminary themes that reflected recurring patterns in language use, teacher strategies, and student responses. The themes have been reviewed, refined and defined to ensure that they captured the essence of the data and at the same time preserve the internal consistency. To strengthen reliability, peer collaboration in coding was employed, and thematic decisions were discussed to achieve consensus.
The analysis included both an inductive and a deductive approach. Inductive coding enabled themes to emerge organically from the data, while deductive coding ensured consistency with the theoretical framework of the study on translanguaging and sociocultural learning. Reflexive practices remained integral throughout the analysis, with researchers constantly re-examining their assumptions in order to balance interpretation with analytical rigor (Yazan et al., 2022).
This layered analysis has led t two central themes: teachers' translanguaging practices and students' attitudes and experiences. These themes directly addressed research questions and provided a comprehensive picture of how translanguaging works in Indonesian secondary-level ELT classroom.
In conclusion, the methodological approach used in this study-grounded in participatory, ethnographic, and thematic traditions-has allowed a nuanced exploration of translanguaging. A combination of observational and interview data, supported by rigorous analytical procedures and reflective researcher practices, has provided a solid basis for understanding the pedagogical and experiential dimensions of multilingual education in Indonesia.
Findings and Discussion
Findings
Two main themes emerged from the thematic analysis: (1) teachers' translanguaging practices in multilingual ELT classrooms, and (2) students' positive experiences and attitudes towards translanguaging. These themes directly address research questions on reconciling translanguaging strategies with established theories of multilingual education and students experiences on linguistic anxiety, understanding, and identity validation.
Teachers' Translanguaging Practices in ELT Classrooms
Teachers used English, Indonesian, and Sundanese strategically throughout the learning phases to scaffold understanding, maintain engagement, and regulate classroom dynamics.
Drawing on classroom observations, field notes, and interviews, both teachers tailored language choices to the skills of the learners and the pedagogical task. Teacher 1 (T1) used a trilingual sequence-opening and closing in English to maintain the teaching authenticity, switching to Indonesian for conceptual clarity, and using Sundanese for rapport and cultural relevance. As T1 explained: "I usually explain a lesson in English and then translate it into Indonesian. Sundanese is also used occasionally... to make the class feel more connected."
Teacher 2 (T2) reported that the approach was Indonesian-centred because the students had limited English skills. To avoid confusion in the original quotation, the intention of the quote is clarified as follows: "The majority of the students were not fluent in English... I use Sundanese primarily for affective support [brief ice-breakers/rapport-building], not for content explanation."
Both teachers framed translanguaging as an intentional teaching method: T1 emphasized that it "allows students to understand the substance of the English lesson," and T2 noted that Indonesian expedites content access and protects instructional time. Systematic functions observed across lesson phases are summarized in Table 2
As shown in Table 2, translanguaging served cognitive (e.g., conceptual clarification) and socio-affective (e.g., anxiety reduction, rapport) purposes throughout the entire learning period. This model is consistent with the evidence that the choice of a phase-sensitive code choice promotes participation and understanding (Phyak et al., 2022; Sinclair & Fernández, 2023). In practice, teachers often presented key terms in English, provided Indonesian definitions immediately, and, when necessary, provided short Sundanese explanations of culturally remote or abstract concepts-in line with research on the integration of multilingual participation (Roiha et al., 2025; Shi et al., 2022).
Real-time responsiveness was crucial. When confusion occured (e.g., puzzled looks, hesitations), the teachers would quickly repeat the Indonesian or offer a short Sundanese clarificationto restore attention and understanding. These minute-to-minute adjustments illustrate translanguaging as a responsive pedagogy, not as a rigit.
Students' Experiences and Attitudes Toward Translanguaging
Students perceived translanguaging as reducing anxiety, improving understanding, and enabling more active participation-while at the same time reaffirming their multilingual identity.
Interviews consistently linked translanguaging to emotional safety and clearer understanding. As one student put it, "I can speak better English when I begin in Indonesian; starting there makes me less nervous and more willing to try." Another student emphasized peer learning: "When a task is confusing, I explain it to my friend in Indonesian first; then we share our answer in English-both of us learn more." These perspectives reflect the dual cognitive and socio-emotional value of translanguaging noted in prior work (Phyak et al., 2022; Sohn et al., 2022).
Students also described the importance of meaning-making of complex vocabulary and grammar: "Using both languages helps me grasp what the teacher intends-especially with new terms," and "It's easier when explanations come in Indonesian right after English." Such reports are consistent with findings on motivational and clarifying functions of translanguaging (Li & Lian, 2024; Zarei et al., 2024).
Observations confirmed these reports. During pair work, students moved smoothly between Indonesian and Sundanese to discuss the assignments and the meaning of the words, then switched to English for the short presentations-an oscillation that fostered language development and collaboration (Cui & Teo, 2023; Pontier & Deroo, 2022). Peer-to-peer translanguaging has further deepened discussions and participation, which is consistent with evidence that cooperative multilingual talk fosters inclusivity and a sense of belonging (Dobinson & Mercieca, 2023; Phyak et al., 2022).
Finally, students reported that they felt more confident when their home languages was validated in the classroom. This validation has strengthened trust and commitment in the learning community, echoing the work linking translanguaging, identity validation, and increased participation (Jiang et al., 2022; Zhang-Wu, 2022).
The findings show that translanguaging has been carefully aligned with the instructional phases and learning needs of the learner. The teachers used a trilingual repertoire to communicate content (cognition) and classroom atmosphere (affect), while the students mobilized the same resources for collaborative problem-solving and risk-taking in English. These practices are resonated by sociocultural perspectives, which emphasize the importance of mediated learning and the Zone of Proximal Development, where strategic L1/Lx support enhances learners' ability to work in the target language.
What is most important is that the short, targeted use of Indonesian and Sundanese has not replaced English; rather, it has scaffolded access to English-based tasks and discourse. The observed sequences-English for framing and output, Indonesian for conceptual explanation, and Sundanese for rapport and cultural anchor-offers a phase-sensitive, context-specific structure that extends the previous translanguaging accounts in the Indonesian secondary ELT settings.
In conclusion, teacher choice of response codes and student collaborative in multilingual dialogue have produced inclusive learning environments characterized by less anxiety, clearer understanding, and stronger affirmation of identity. Consistency of these models across two classes and multiple data sources reinforces the pedagogical value of translanguaging in this context.
Discussion
This study examines the nuanced use of translanguaging practices by English teachers in secondary school in Indonesia and highlights the positive attitudes and experiences of students towards these methods. By examining classroom contexts, teacher strategies, and student perceptions, the findings contribute to the wider understanding of translanguaging, particularly as it relates to and expands on existing theoretical frameworks in the field of multilingual education. The results also support the theoretical claim that translanguaging can reduce language anxiety, improve understanding, and reaffirm multilingual identity in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom.
The main finding of the study is that the teachers strategically use several languages- English, Indonesian, and Sundanese-to facilitate learning and teaching. This is in line with the concept of García and Wei (2014) of translanguaging, where multilingual individuals us a single, integrated language repertoire rather than discrete language systems. The intentional switching of teachers between languages, documented by direct classroom observations and interviews, shows that translanguaging is a thoughtful, pedagogically informed approach rather than an arbitrary language mixture (Garcia & Wei, 2014; Lewis et al., 2012).
These findings are also consistent with wider socio-cultural theories, such as Vygotsky's (1978), which focus on the mediation of learning through cultural and linguistic tools. Translanguaging practices are in line with these theoretical foundations, emphasizing the fluidity of language use and the importance of context in shaping learning (Mendoza et al., 2023; Phyak et al., 2022). The teachers in this study facilitated access to complex English content by strategically integrating local languages, confirmed the value of using the full linguistic repertoires of students. Like Sohn et al. (2022) argue that this approach enhances cognitive engagement and promotes participation in the classroom.
Moreover, the study challenges the prevailing monolingual ideologies in education systems by presenting translanguaging as a balanced and empowering teaching method. Translanguaging practices challenge traditional language boundaries and promote a holistic view of language as multimodal and dynamic (Flynn et al., 2023). By recognizing the linguistic identity of students, these practices promote an environment in which learners feel recognized, valued and empowered to be fully involved in the work (Cui & Teo, 2023).
The positive experience of students with translanguaging further strengthens its pedagogical value. Participants consistently reported that using their home languages in addition to English improved their understanding, reduced their anxiety, and encouraged active participation in class. These findings are in line with previous research (Nurhayati, 2023; Rahayu et al., 2023) and confirm the emotional and cognitive benefits of translanguaging (Pontier & Deroo, 2022; Şahan et al., 2022). Students in this study expressed a strong sense of ownership over their learning when their multilingual identity was recognized, which echoes the findings of s by Jiang et al. (2022) and Zhang-Wu (2022).
A particularly important findings of this study is the dual role of translanguaging: it acts as both a scaffolding tool for less able learners and a vehicle for developing higher-order thinking skills. Teachers have used the language skills of students to build a comprehensive understandings of the English content, facilitating more effective learning (Cenoz, 2017; Daniel et al., 2017). These practices are also in line with the Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where learners achieve more with support than on their own (Wang, 2022; Yasar Yuzlu & Dikilitas, 2022). When students could participate in translanguaging, they were more motivated to participate in meaning-making activities (Genis & Aung, 2021).
The teaching models of learning observed in this study-such as the strategic use of code-switching and translation-reflect wider trends in EFL teaching. In line with the work of Sinclair and Fernández (2023), code-switching was used during the introduction of lessons to establish context and to alleviate students' anxiety. As the lesson progressed, students were encouraged to switch between languages and to discuss the meaning of the words in collaborative way, in line with the practice described by Phyak et al. (2022). This organic integration of local and target languages promoted understanding and interaction, although evidence supporting language switching at the final phase was not sufficient to be include.
The study also shows how translanguaging boosts motivation and agency of students. When teachers encouraged the use of Indonesian and Sundanese, students reported that they felt more confident and engaged. This inclusive approach has been referred to by Pontier and Deroo (2022) and Sohn et al. (2022), empower students to make a meaningful contribution to classroom discussions and to deepen their learning. The link between language, identity, and participation in the classroom is further confirmed by the fact that local languages are included in EFL (Cui & Teo, 2023).
Furthermore, the findings have implications for language policy and curriculum reform in the context of multilingual education. Translanguaging promotes the development of inclusive learning frameworks and challenges the predominance of English-only teaching. As proposed by Schall-Leckrone (2022), education policy needs to recognize and promote the use of multiple languages in classrooms. This improves equity, allocation of resources, and learning outcomes. Zheng and Peng (2022) argue that policy reforms need to reflect learners' linguistic reality in order to be relevant and learning outcomes. Dobinson et al. (2023) and Ridley and Bhowmik (2025) emphasize the importance of including linguistic diversity in education systems in order to foster culturally responsive and effective learning.
These findings are consistent with previous Indonesian studies. Sapitri et al. (2018) and Raja et al. (2022) have already demonstrated the benefits of translanguaging in local EFL classes. This study complements this literature by providing a detailed description of the teaching strategies at each learning stage and extensive data on student perceptions. This addresses gaps in recent research by highlighting how translanguaging works and how students experience its effects (Yaniafari et al., 2023).
The teachers in this study used different translanguaging techniques, such as code-mixing and guided translation, to scaffold and differentiate the teaching. These methods are consistent with the categories defined by Rauteda (2022) and the dynamic translanguaging described by Otheguy et al. (2015). Sometimes, translanguaging also serves a stylistic or cultural function, reflecting the identity of the students and the local context (Ng & Lee, 2019).
However, limitations remain. Some teachers have expressed reluctance to use translanguaging consistently, perhaps because institutional standards favoring linguistic purity or a lack of training in multilingual pedagogy (Cenoz, 2017; Yuan & Yang, 2020). Effective implementation of translanguaging requires not only policy reform but also continuous teacher training, curricular flexibility, and support from the system (Goodman & Tastanbek, 2020; Tai & Wei, 2023).
This study reinforces the pedagogical and theoretical relevance of translanguaging in Indonesian EFL classes. It shows how translanguaging can be a transformative tool to bridge gaps in understanding, reduce emotional barriers, and reaffirm the multilingual identity of learners. To achieve its potential, translanguaging needs to be integrated into teacher training, curriculum design, and language policy. Future research should explore the longitudinal results of translanguaging practices and explore how technology can further support multilingual learning. Through these efforts, translanguaging can be a central element in creating a more inclusive and effective learning environment in multilingual contexts.
Conclusion
Our study examined the implementation of translanguaging practices by English teachers in secondary school in Indonesia and their impact on student engagement, understanding, and affirmation of identity. The findings showed that both teachers and students accepted translanguaging as a valuable teaching approach, with teachers strategically using English, Indonesian, and Sundanese as scaffolding and students reporting increased self-confidence, understanding, and participation in the classroom. Drawing on sociocultural theory and translanguaging frameworks, the study highlighted how fluid language practices promote a balanced learning environment and undermines monolingual ideologies. Evidence has shown that translanguaging is not only a compensatory strategy but also a transformative pedagogical tool that validates the identity of multilingual learners and promotes inclusive learning.
The implications of the study are important for both practitioners and policy makers. Teachers are encouraged to adopt flexible, student-responsive pedagogies that leverage the full linguistic repertoires of learners. Translanguaging also requires learning scaffolds that link students' previous language skills to new content, thus promoting deeper learning. From a policy perspective, the findings support the development of inclusive frameworks that promote multilingual practices, providing training for teachers and rethinking the use of English-only curricula in nasional curricula.
However, the study is not without limitations. Its relatively small sample size, limited to one school and a short observation, limits the universality of its findings. Moreover, the lack of formal language performance evaluation limits the insight into the long-term impacts of translanguaging on measurable academic performance.
Future research should look at comparative studies across different regions and educational levels in order to confirm and expand on these findings. Longitudinal approaches would also reveal the lasting impact of translanguaging on learners' language development, academic achievement, and identity formation. In addition, exploring how digital tools can facilitate and enrich translanguaging practices would offer practical innovations for 21st-century language learning.
Overall, our research has contributed to a deeper understanding of how translanguaging can improve language learning experiences in a multilingual context and provides practical insights for evolving language learning policies and practices.
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