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Chronic pain affects around 20% of the general population and can therefore be considered a public health problem. Apart from the issue of pain itself, chronic pain often has far-reaching consequences on an individual's physical and mental well-being, functioning, and quality of life (QoL). Opioids are narcotic drugs with potent analgesic properties, and these drugs have in modern medical practice become widely used in acute, cancer-related, and chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) conditions. However, guidelines generally advise against the use of opioids for CNCP because of lack of efficacy regarding improvements in pain intensity, physical functioning, and QoL for patients with CNCP. Furthermore, serious adverse effects may be associated with opioid treatment for both individuals and society, as evidenced by the opioid epidemic in the United States. The overarching aim of this doctoral thesis was to contribute knowledge on how physicians in clinical practice can prescribe opioids in a safer manner.
The problem of pain, opioids, the opioid-treated patient, and the prescriber, are first introduced and detailed. Thereafter, each study is thoroughly described. Paper I and II used quantitative methodology, and Paper III used qualitative methodology. More specifically, Paper I was a cross-sectional, registry-based study on patients referred to specialized pain care at the Pain and Rehabilitation Clinic in Linköping in 2015. Medication data were self-reported and matched with patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) that were extracted from the Swedish Quality Registry for Pain Rehabilitation. 441 patients had complete medication data and PROMs; 30% used opioids daily and 13% used opioids "as needed". Daily opioid treatment did not correlate with better PROMs when compared to patients without opioid treatment. Despite some methodological limitations, this study added important prevalence data regarding opioid use in chronic pain patients in Sweden and added to the growing body of knowledge which challenges the notion that opioids lead to improved pain, physical function, or QoL for patients with CNCP.
In Paper II, 25 men and 12 women with head-neck cancer who receivedadjuvant radiotherapy (RT) were followed for 12 months. When RT-induced mucositis began to subside, opioid tapering was started, and blood samples were drawn at five time points. In men, after opioid tapering began, testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels increased quickly during the first month and remained relatively constant thereafter. Significant changes in levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and prolactin were also seen. In postmenopausal women (n = 10), levels of FSH and luteinizing hormone changed significantly during the study period. Two premenopausal women were presented as case reports which indicated that opioid-induced changes on estradiol were reversed after tapering began. This study indicated that previously known opioid-induced effects on endocrine measures, e.g., opioid-induced hypogonadism, were reversible after opioid tapering was started.
In Paper III, 20 board-certified pain specialists were intervieweddigitally, and interviews were transcribed verbatim. Manifest inductive content analysis was used to analyze interviews, and the experiences of pain specialists were summarized in two main categories: Navigating the doctor-patient relationship and Challenges and opportunities when prescribing opioids. The former included communication, conflicts, managing expectations, and the emotional and ethical aspects of opioid prescribing which pain specialists had experienced. The latter included handling complexity and heterogeneity, organizational aspects, and the doctor's due diligence which was needed when prescribing opioids. This study identified important prescriber needs and opportunities for system-level improvements,such as the issue of sufficient time when prescribing, which would likelysupport responsible and safer opioid prescribing in health care.