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Abstract
Advances in digital technology have the potential to profoundly transform teaching and learning. Prepared as part of the OECD project "Resourcing School Education: Policies for the Digital Transformation of Education and Future-Readiness of Teachers", this working paper draws on data from PISA 2022 to analyse how students and teachers are using digital resources for learning activities today. Following a description of schools' digital infrastructure, the paper analyses how students use digital resources for learning and which factors are associated with a more intensive use of digital technology in schools. Drawing on previously unexamined data from the PISA Teacher Questionnaire, it then analyses the digital tools that teachers use and how they employ them. Using cluster analysis, the paper identifies distinct patterns in students', teachers' and schools' approaches to digital learning, revealing significant heterogeneity across and within countries. The paper concludes with insights that can guide the design and implementation of more effective and equitable digital education policies.
Acknowledgements
This working paper was prepared by Luka Boeskens and Alfonso Echazarra as part of the OECD project "Resourcing School Education: Policies for the Digital Transformation of Education and Future-Readiness of Teachers", which is included in the 2025-26 Programme of Work of the OECD's Education Policy Committee (EDPC). The authors would like to thank delegates of the OECD Group of National Experts on School Resources (GNE-SR), which oversees the project, as well as members of the EDPC and the PISA Governing Board (PGB) for their insightful feedback on drafts of the paper. The working paper also benefited from the input and advice of José-Luis Alvarez-Galvan and Miyako Ikeda. The authors are grateful to Paulo Santiago (Head of the Policy Advice and Implementation Division of the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills) and Andreas Schleicher (OECD Director for Education and Skills) for their overall guidance and feedback. The authors also thank Christina Mitrakos and Sophie Limoges for their support during the formatting and publication process.
1 Introduction
Background
Digital education technologies have become a key resource in OECD education and training systems and significant investments over the past decade have enabled their increasing integration into schools and classrooms. When used effectively, digital tools can enhance teaching, foster student engagement and collaboration, and support self-regulated learning (OECD, 202371)....