Content area
In higher education, where we investigate emotional competencies, we displayed 1045 questionnaires, 817 of which were ultimately processed, with 779 students and 38 teachers from 9 architectural and engineering schools in Spain. We designed the Empathic Survey by asking teachers how they considered their students had answered to the questions. Thirty-eight variables were employed: 32 first-generation variables (22 operationalized emotion items and 10 sociodemographic items), 4 s-generation variables, and 2 third-generation variables. The second- and third-generation variables were inferred. We conducted an initial psychometric validation focused on reliability and internal structure. The results of the statistical analyses revealed several items with p-values less than 0.001. The values depict a sigmoidal shape whose interpretation fits with the literature about bright and dark narcissism. The Stela Effect name comes from the fact that it explains the behavior of students fascinated by teachers with narcissistic traits as if they were attracted to a comet tail. To contrast its meaning and coherence, as it is a graphic representation without antecedents, we present its correlations in various areas of knowledge and disciplines, such as Theory of Mind (ToM), Attachment, the Unconscious, Self-esteem, Dissociation, Shame, Empathy, Teaching, different aspects and approaches to Narcissism (continuous and dual) and its measurement, and the field of Contradictions. At the same time, we discuss its meaning from biases and different schools of psychological thought. We consider the Stela Effect the operationalization of a dual and dynamic model of narcissism sustained by several authors, and it helps us to understand many contradictions around narcissistic behavior. We conclude the presentation of the study in its current state with a practical implication: as an educational innovation, we propose using the Stela Effect framework as a pedagogical enhancement. Specifically, we outline a six-phase intervention protocol designed to help individuals develop awareness of their maladaptive tendencies and work through them, thereby transitioning toward more collaborative and effective modes of functioning.
Introduction
Concept
The concept of narcissism has evolved from ancient times [1, 2] to its clinical and diagnostic consideration [3, 4–5], its inclusion in the DSM, its modern conceptualization [6, 7], and subsequent revisions, classifications, and nuances [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20–21]. In the last 40 years, narcissism has been investigated from different areas of knowledge [22, 23, 24, 25, 26–27] which an undeniable global presence of interest around narcissism with many different approaches [28, 29–30].
Theory of mind, attachment and unconscious
This paper proposes a psychological effect framed in Theory of Mind (ToM) and its background [31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36–37] where the recursive use of beliefs [38, 39] play a core tool as a kind of metacognition used in teaching [40], demonstrated in neuroimaging images [41] and performed, among others, in the pragmatic linguistic field [42, 43].The relationship among the Attachment Theory [44, 45, 46–47], the capacity to attribute beliefs to others in ToM [48] and the psychoanalysis [49, 50, 51–52], poses relevant resources for the present analyses.Another interesting issue related is the study of unconscious from the Freud's reconceptualization [53] to cognitive dissonance [54, 55] and Primacy of Affect Theory of Social Psychology [56, 57–58], and the biases [59, 60–61] in the field of either involuntary or voluntary beliefs [62, 63, 64, 65–66].
Self-esteem, dissociation, shame and empathy
A special point deserves the self-esteem, in the midst of the self-concept, the locus of control and sense of agency [67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73–74], and the contradictory aspects related with the regulation of that self-esteem [75, 76, 77–78], like the Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model [79, 80]. Self-esteem seems to have ambivalent connotations, one healthy and secure, the other fragile or defensive [81], supporting the existence of its dark side, which would correlate with defenses or even violence when the ego is threatened [82, 83, 84, 85–86]. Thus, narcissism and self-esteem are intertwined from different perspectives [87, 88–89], as it is demonstrated in the measures tools used [90, 91] to score self-esteem. Other concepts as dissociation [92, 93, 94, 95, 96–97], shame [98, 99, 100, 101, 102–103] and empathy [104] are also strongly related with narcissism; the latter both under the neuroscience of mirror neurons and from the ToM [105, 106, 107, 108–109].
Teaching
The most relevant to this paper are the special connection between teaching and narcissism [110, 111, 112, 113, 114–115]. There is a bold influence between teacher and students that can affect severely the experience of both [116, 117, 118, 119, 120–121], although there is little scientific literature on teacher self-esteem [122]. Despite the also scarce literature on narcissism in teaching [123, 124–125], there are some authors that pose a close relationships between the two [126, 127–128]. Recently "echoism" may be another link between teacher and students [129, 130, 131, 132, 133–134] in the area of codependency.
UNESCO along with some authors have lately expressed the teaching responsibility in in teaching quality [135, 136]. In addition, teacher-student relationships are being the subject of interest from the Chinese higher education system for knowledge exchange [137], highlighting the importance of school support at the institutional level, where the creation of platforms that facilitate the improvement of teacher-student interaction is recommended [138].
Aspects of narcissism, continuous & dual, and measurement
In this way, and despite the limitations of the DSM as it is subject to constant revision and refers only to the male and clinical population, it can be said that narcissism is a multidimensional construct with some variations by race and culture; a set of symptoms or traits about which its condition as a trait/state or situational is discussed, which today is understood in a dimensional and noncategorical manner. In the continuous and dual narcissism [139, 140, 141, 142, 143–144] we find a number of patterns that can affect the behavior [145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159–160] to extreme cases. In this line, the measure of narcissism have reached a justified interest with several measurement instruments [161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166–167], all of them limited mainly due to their generalized reliance on self-reports.
Contradictions
There are several contradictions around narcissism necessary to be considered relevant to this research. One of them is the duality fascination/rejection and the egosyntonic dimension [168, 169, 170, 171–172]. Others are the volatility of narcissistic self-esteem [69], use of the mask [173] as defensive protection, the traumatic bonding and learned helplessness [174, 175, 176–177], self-deception [178, 179], the emotion regulation over Excitation Transfer Theory [180] and Opponent-Process Theory [181, 182] or the oscillations between affective extremes reported by some authors [183], and the Self-Complexity Model [184, 185].
Biases
A very relevant area of this research is around human inferences, and they are biased by the limitations of judgment [186, 187–188]. The relationship between biases and ToM has highly impact in the point of view of students and teachers, with some authors recognizing biases as a natural and adaptive part of the human being [189, 190, 191, 192–193]. The range of biases that can be observed in narcissistic behavior is very broad, such as those related to decision-making [194, 195, 196, 197–198], the status quo [199, 200, 201–202] reactance [203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208–209], learned helplessness [210, 211–212], and many are related to the educational stage [213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218–219]. On the other hand, self-deception from the belief system [220], survival [221, 222–223], unconscious response [224, 225], and other scenarios [226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240–241], put a link directly to narcissism and its behavior in teaching field.
Among the biases, one of greatest relevance for narcissism is social desirability, which usually involves both deceiving the other and self-deception, suggesting self-consciousness in the face of the difficulty of managing self-deception [242]. Closely related to this is the fear of negative evaluation, which has its own scale of measurement [243]. With regard to Social Learning Theories, there are several biases related to the Attribution Theory [244], such as self-enhancement bias, reactivity that generates violence when perceived as a threat, actor observer bias, correspondence bias, fundamental attribution error or self-service bias, which are representativeness heuristics. In narcissism, self-enhancement biases play a particularly important role and there are differential effects in the short and long term [169]. The Halo Effect shows that there is a constant error when evaluating the characteristics of an individual, as individuals tend to be rated globally positively or negatively based on some salient feature [245]. In addition, dependence produces biases, and we show perceptual distortions toward people with the power to evaluate us [246], discarding negative information from the evaluators [247].
Different proposals for intervention in narcissism
Since there is no strict antecedent for this new effect, it seems reasonable to review briefly the way some of the different disciplines, schools, models, and techniques affect narcissism, and which we have found to be consistent with the effect we describe. In Psychoanalysis we find the mirror stage [248, 249–250], the separation-individuation phase [251, 252, 253–254], the mask model [255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262–263], power dynamics [264], the conflict with a hierarchical figure [265], the self-reparenting [266], the shame [99, 100] and the enactment [267], as well as a healthy narcissism with an adequate self-esteem and a value system [141]. In Cognitive Behavioral there are several supported models [268, 269], though some discrepancies [270, 271]; with concepts of high interest in the intervention on narcissism such as extinction [272], reciprocal inhibition, learned helplessness, dependence and counterconditioning [273] of systematic desensitization [274, 275–276]. Humanism brings among others introspection, core conditions [277], the body approach [278], communication [279], freedom to choose the internal attitude [280], adaption [281, 282, 283–284], values like compassion [285, 286, 287, 288–289], acceptance [290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296–297], and gratitude [298, 299]. In Systemic they work interdisciplinarity [300, 301–302], enaction [303] in embodied cognition [304], homeostasis [305] and agency [306]. Social Psychology covers group dynamics [307, 308], changes and habits [309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314–315], the fields [316] in organizations [317, 318], motives [319, 320] and mirror again [321]. Some Third Generation therapies work on acceptance and validation that allow us to deal with avoidance [296, 322]. Although we have not found Embodied Cognition as a different model on a par with major schools, it does appear in several of them since the origin of psychology as a science [323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332–333], with concepts such as activation [334], window of tolerance [335, 336], mindfulness [337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343–344] or bodily techniques for treating trauma with more or less scientific support [345, 346, 347, 348, 349–350]; and in other areas of knowledge like philosophy [351, 352, 353, 354–355], sociology [356, 357, 358–359], linguistics [360], anthropology [361, 362], pedagogy [363, 364, 365–366], medicine [367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372–373], or metaphors [374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387–388]. We have found in our experience that bodily techniques are very effective for narcissists, maybe because they do not perceive the solution to their situation as imposed, but rather draw it from within themselves, without deploying the defenses that they would raise against any external interference. For this reason, they form the basis of the intervention we propose. Anyway, the most recent evidence of mind–body connections is scientific in nature and explained by means of the Somato-Cognitive Action Network (SCAN) [389].
Research gap
Recent research on narcissism in higher education tends to focus on student narcissism [390, 391, 392, 393–394] or on the effects of narcissistic leadership on subordinate faculty [395]. Work addressing teacher narcissism discusses the negative impact of supervisor narcissism in higher education [396], job satisfaction among physical education teachers [397], adverse effects of teacher narcissism at educational levels other than higher education [398], and narcissism among prospective teachers [399, 400]. Within higher education, studies have examined narcissistic rivalry among instructors and its relation to research productivity [401], the toxic leadership of narcissistic faculty [402], and associations between teacher narcissism and adult attachment [403]. Research noting potential positive effects of narcissism—outside educational contexts and not concerning teacher narcissism—typically refers to benefits for the narcissist per se, not to their influence on others [404]. Even so, it acknowledges a “double-edged profile,” namely possible gains in individual performance under pressure at the cost of social costs and relational difficulties. This dual effect also appears in workplace research, which reports that narcissistic leadership, despite increasing employee hostility, can enhance employees’ “psychological availability,” thereby mediating positive behaviours [405]. In the leadership literature, an optimal (intermediate) level of narcissism in leaders has been proposed [406, 407]. In educational contexts outside higher education, narcissism has been described as a potential protective factor against burnout among Iranian teachers [408]. A possible positive effect of teacher narcissism in higher education has been reported when instructor and student narcissism are congruent [112], alongside potentially detrimental outcomes for less narcissistic or low-self-esteem students [409]; analogous positive effects of such congruence on creativity have been documented in workplace settings [410]. Consistent with this, the “narcissistic-tolerance theory” refers to the tendency of individuals with narcissistic traits to exhibit greater tolerance and sympathy toward other narcissistic individuals than toward non-narcissists [411, 412–413]. Prior research addressing the attractiveness of faculty narcissism to students is limited.
Study genesis
Initially, the purpose of the research was to evaluate the emotional competencies of architecture teachers by their students through the use of questionnaires specifically designed for this purpose, considering that the lack of these competencies is the cause of learning difficulties in students. An analysis of the results of the surveys revealed an unexpected effect that suggested that, paradoxically, little empathetic attitudes led to a favorable evaluation of the students. Therefore, we reassessed the situation and extended the investigation to narcissism and related constructs, which could clarify the new and unforeseen situation.
Hypothesis and objectives
The hypothesis of the present study is that students’ emotional evaluation of their teachers increases as instructors’ narcissistic characteristics rise. The objectives are to assess students’ attraction to teachers as a function of professorial narcissism, to examine the dimensional structure of that attraction, and to quantify its effect by specifying its operationalization.
Method
Although we did not truly realize it, during these years, we have followed some postulates of Grounded Theory [414]. A theory is formulated about what will be investigated. We did not seek to investigate narcissism, but rather tried to conceptualize what was appearing; thus hypotheses emerged from the data. In the coding process, we needed to name the categories that emerged that we called second- and third-generation variables, and concepts that we called Own Inference, Others’ Inference, Own Distance and Others’ Distance; in a process that we later learned is called Memoing. Sorting is the classification of the previous concepts, and it was also necessary to present it to other researchers. It is closely related to Symbolic Interactionism, since the interrelationship and communication between individuals counts, causing each concept to develop, change and give rise to consequences [415].
Prior literature documents an inverse relationship between narcissism and empathy, and a positive relationship between narcissism and self-enhancement. It is therefore reasonable to compare the ratings a teacher actually receives with those the teacher believes they have been assigned. By the same token, low empathy may correlate with difficulty in discerning how students feel in class; accordingly, it is coherent to relate students’ emotional self-evaluations to the teacher’s beliefs about those evaluations. On this basis, the newly coined constructs were developed. Second-generation constructs were so named because they were derived from operations performed on the raw data collected, and third-generation constructs because they resulted from operations on the former. We found it necessary to assign labels for coding; accordingly, the following were defined:
sEIt—student Emotional Intelligence teacher: the teacher’s emotional intelligence as evaluated by the students.
sEIs—student Emotional Intelligence student: the student’s emotional intelligence as self-evaluated.
tEIt—teacher Emotional Intelligence teacher: Own Inference—how the teacher believes the class evaluates the teacher, obtained via a questionnaire completed by the teacher.
tEIs—teacher Emotional Intelligence student: Others' Inference—how the teacher believes the class evaluates itself, obtained via the same teacher-completed questionnaire.
DstEIt—Distance student teacher Emotional Intelligence teacher: Own Distance—the difference between students’ evaluation of the teacher and the teacher’s belief about how they were evaluated.
DstEIs—Distance student teacher Emotional Intelligence student: Others' Distance—the difference between students’ self-evaluation and the teacher’s belief about how the students evaluated themselves.
In the process we not only found serendipitous patterns [416], but also found that the Stela Effect was serendipitous in itself, since what we were investigating was only the possible emotional difficulties of teaching architecture. Furthermore, we were unaware of the previous literature on narcissism, so the theoretical concepts emerged from the data unsullied by prior knowledge.
This study was carried out in accordance with the basic ethical principles explicit in the Institutional Review Board Statement at the end of the paper. Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before the beginning of the study. No minors were included in the study.
Sample
For the development of this research, we designed a specific survey in nine different colleges of architecture and engineering in Spain located in seven cities around the country (Barcelona, Cartagena, Granada, Madrid, Segovia, Sevilla, and Valladolid), most of which were relevant and traditional and historical schools of architecture. The fieldwork was carried out in April and May 2012, at the end of the academic year, with the objective that students and teachers had already developed enough of a relationship to be evaluated.
A total of 1045 questionnaires were obtained, 817 of which were ultimately processed from 779 students and 38 teachers. Among the teachers, 78.9% were male, 21.1% were female, and 24% were doctorated. Among the sampled students, 44.2% were male, and 55.4% were female; 90.1% of the students were aged 18 to 24 years, while 9.9% were aged 25 to 42 years.
Procedure
The research design of the questionnaire consisted of one survey with 25 items (Table 1), in which both the teacher and the students had the same questions about the emotional aspects of the educator's teaching method. The questionnaire uses a five-point Likert-type response scale: Not at all (0) – A little (1) – Sufficient/Usually (2) – Quite a lot (3) – Completely (4). In Table 1, we show the questionnaire in which some words are bolded because they were presented in the same way when the survey was originally given to students and teachers. It was significant to highlight some words because several questions were similar, and the differences among them were emotional nuances that we bolded to facilitate the development.
Table 1. Empathic survey
Q1 | I understand the course plan, works and wordings. |
Q2 | I understand the reasons why my work is right or wrong for my teacher. |
Q3 | I understand the reasons why the classmates’ work is right or wrong for my teacher. |
Q4 | I agree with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when they explain it to me. |
Q5 | I agree afterward with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when I have considered it after a personal or group reflection. |
Q6 | I can express my agreement/disagreement to the teacher without generating tension. |
Q7 | I can express my agreement/disagreement to a classmate without generating tension. |
Q8 | I can express my agreement/disagreement to the whole class without generating tension. |
Q9 | I can listen to the agreement/disagreement from the teacher without feeling upset. |
Q10 | I can listen to the agreement/disagreement of a classmate without feeling upset. |
Q11 | I can listen to the agreement/disagreement of the whole class without feeling upset. |
Q12 | I feel free to express myself in a personal correction class with the teacher. |
Q13 | Do I? |
Q14 | I feel free to express myself in a public exposition class. |
Q15 | Do I? |
Q16 | I consider right the level of demand from the teacher. |
Q17 | I find that my learning along this course with this teacher in this subject fits my expectations and works satisfactorily. |
Q18 | Which grades have I obtained along this course with this teacher in this subject? (please, this is asked an extreme level of honesty in this question to elaborate considerations which is the goal of the survey; remind that results are not given to the teacher and they are anonymous). |
Q19 | Do I agree with these grades? |
Q20 | Age and gender of the student. |
Q21 | Do I feel my teacher receptive when they check out my work? |
Q22 | Do I feel treated with respect by my teacher when they check out my work? |
Q23 | Do I feel limited or restricted by my teacher to express myself? |
Q24 | Do I consider that my work is truly mine in the end? |
Q25 | Observations (you can number them if they refer to one of the above questions. or you can elaborate them freely): |
Instrument: Empathic Survey
In the case of the teachers, the survey asked them how they thought the students would respond to each emotional item. In our approach, inference is essential to understanding narcissism and teaching through a type of survey that we coined the Empathic Survey. We carry out a parameterized study that contributes to elucidating behavioral phenomena by which these figures can mobilize their students. This name reveals the inference concept's significance in evaluating teacher's emotional aptitude to know what their students think about and correlate it to students' answers. The teacher is asked to elaborate a belief about someone else's belief in a recursive or second-order way [417], a concept used in ToM [39], and the questions are asked personally by the researcher, so that it is not a cold self-report, but a kind of interview, which makes it easier for the implicit aspects to emerge [418]. This was mainly because the teachers were being asked to infer the emotional states of the students, something to which they were not accustomed; thus, the cognitive overload that this entailed [78, 419] was evident to the interviewer. To minimize potential interviewer bias, the interviewer consistently maintained a nonjudgmental stance toward the instructors. Moreover, because the interviewer was unaware of the effect ultimately observed, interviewer expectancy effects were precluded.
Considering the importance of the replicability of research in psychology [420, 421], we have been cautious in providing all the data necessary for the replicability of the Empathic Survey. We have also paid particular attention to the subjectivity of the research itself during the investigation and believe that it is something that will have to remain present in the later phases of the intervention process [422].
New generation variables and constructs
A theoretical framework was developed on the basis of 38 variables and constructs. Among those variables, 32 of them were first-generation variables, with 10 sociodemographic variables (sex and age of student and teacher, qualification, course, public/private college, teacher Ph.D./non-Ph.D., teacher reference, city), and the other 22 were emotional operative items from the Empathic Survey.
Four second-generation variables (Table 2) parameterize the 22 emotional variables. Two of them are emotional assessments (sEIt and sEIs), and the other two are Own Inference (tEIt) and Others' Inference (tEIs). In Fig. 1, we graphically illustrate the second-generation variables graphically to create a quick and intuitive awareness of the constructs generated.
Table 2. Second-generation variables: direct variables and inference variables
sEIt | The direct Emotional Intelligence (EI) of the Teacher; assessment of the Emotional Intelligence of the Teacher evaluated by the Students |
sEIs | The self-referenced EI of the Student; emotional self-evaluation of the Student |
Own Inference (tEIt) | Estimation made by the Teacher about the EI that his/her Students assign him/her; how the Teacher thinks his class values him/her |
Others' Inference (tEIs) | The teacher's estimation of the emotional self-assessment made by the Students; what the Teacher believes his/her Students think about themselves |
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Fig. 1
Ideograms for understanding second-generation variables
Finally, two variables of the third-generation (Table 3) are computed from the second-generation variables: Own Distance (DstEIt) and Others' Distance (DstEIs). Both are distances between the direct estimations made by the students and the inferences made by the teacher. Again, in Fig. 2, we graphically illustrate the third-generation variables graphically to create a quick and intuitive awareness of the constructs designed.
Table 3. Third-generation variables. Distances between direct variables made by students and inferences made by the teacher
DstEIt | Own Distance = DstEIt = sEIt – tEIt. Distance between the teacher's direct EI evaluated by the students and the teacher's estimation of the EI attributed to him/her by the students; the greater Own Distance variable the less knowledge the teacher has about what the students think of him/her |
DstEIs | Others’ Distance = DstEIs = sEIs – tEIs. Distance between the student's self-assessment of his/her own EI and the teacher's estimation or inference of the self-rated EI of the students; the greater the Others' Distance the less the teacher knows what the students think about themselves |
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Fig. 2
Ideograms for understanding third-generation variables
In Eq. (1) we compute the students' opinions about the teacher's Emotional Intelligence using the Empathic Survey (sEIt).
1
Equation (2) processes questions related to the self-opinion of Emotional Intelligence of the students (sEIs).
2
Both equations were designed according to the standard criteria for an individual's emotional intelligence in previous literature from Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence [423, 424], personalizing for an architectural workshop class in which there was no background. As a starting condition, we knew that statistical analysis would provide relevant information about which questions or items might be more significant and eventually adjust them.
It is relevant to introduce now the whole theoretical framework, though Eq. (2) will not be employed for the primary outcomes of the present paper, because it will be applied for the next, and now it offers a better understanding of the global approach.
We used the same survey and equations for the second-generation variables (tEIt and tEIs), but asking teachers how they believed their students have responded to the questions. This approach is the key to Empathic Survey and inferences. In this way, we obtain our second-generation variables (Own Inference and Other's Inference), however, for the results of the present paper, we use only the Own Inference (tEIt).
As we have displayed in Table 3, Own Distance (DstIEt) is the result of Eq. (3) shown below, which can offer both positive and negative distances depending on the value of the two terms of the equation. The Own Distance conceptual meaning is a mismatch between actual students' opinions and their teacher's belief about which one is that opinion.
3
Therefore, a positive value for this parameter implies that student assessments of the teacher’s EI are greater than the teacher’s belief in how their students value him/her. Conversely, a negative value indicates a lower score for student thinking than the teacher belief is. Finally, a null distance means a good adjustment between the students' assessment and the teacher's belief about which one that assessment is.
In Fig. 3 we graphically illustrate Own Distance graphically using ideograms of second and third-generation variables, to create a quick and intuitive awareness of the constructs designed.
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Fig. 3
Graphical depiction of Own Distance using Ideograms of second and third-generation variables
Finally, as we previously noted, Other’s Distance would compute in the same way as Own Distance but using Other’s Inference instead of Own Inference, although this is not part of the present paper.
IBMSPSS Statictics Version 26.0 was used for statistical analysis, in which all the parameters and variables were computed. For a graphical depiction of distance variables, we use a grouped scatter graph with the direct variable of second-generation on the horizontal axis, and the third-generation distance variable on the vertical axis.
The 779 student points were vectorized for the 38 teachers on graphics with AutoCAD v2022 to extract and work, layer by layer, the outcomes of each teacher.
Results
The grouped scatter chart below depicts a sigmoidal shape (Fig. 4) with two colors (male and female teachers). This grouped scatter plot shows a positive, linear and strong correlation between variables. The analysis revealed an asymmetric distribution around the virtual horizontal axis (a zero-value distance for DstEIt, which we call the null distance).
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Fig. 4
sEIt versus DstEIt (Own Distance).
A comparison between the second-generation variable (sEIt) and the third-generation variable (DstEIt) depicted a nonhomogeneous spread of data (each circle drawn is one student taking into account that several circles are coincident in the same place).
A greater weight of the sigmoidal shape of negative values indicates a proclivity to those between -2.15 and 0.00. On the other hand, the positive range is between 0.00 and 1.68. Furthermore, the sEIt variable takes values between 0.64 as a minimum and 4 as a maximum on the horizontal axis.
Figure 5a shows the frequency (mean = 2.55; Std Dev = 0.649) for the sEIt variable, for which several values are above the Gauss curve. Figure 5b shows the frequency (mean = 0.14; Std Dev = 0.622) for the Own Distance variable (DstEIt).
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Fig. 5
Frequency distribution of variables. a sEIt frequency distribution. b DstEIt frequency distribution
The p-value were calculated through ANOVA to determine the relevance of particular variables throughout the whole study. The significance of the questions and direct variables was defined as values less than 0.05, and the very high significance was defined as values equal to or less than 0.001. According to the ANOVA, with Own Distance (DstEIt) as the dependent variable, which in turn included only the specific questions mentioned in Eq. (1), the results showed significance for some specific questions from the Empathic Survey, as shown in Table 1. Fixed factors comprised the items included in the relevant section of the questionnaire. Student sex, age, and course were included as random effects. Finally, sEIt was entered as a covariate, as shown in the effect plot.
For the errors to be uncorrelated and for the observers not to share bias, we have in subsequent phases to increase the sample size so that the average of the judgments is reasonably accurate and to tend the errors to the mean of 0 [425]. On this occasion, to contrast the possible dependence of the data that could occur in the sigmoid result, we have added graphical representations with the value of the class mean for each teacher (Figs. 6 and 7).
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Fig. 6
sEIt-m versus DstEIt (Own Distance).
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Fig. 7
sEIt-m versus tEIt (Own Inference).
Table 4 shows statistical results of p-value. The questions Q3 (I understand the reasons why the classmates’ work is right or wrong for my teacher; p < 0.001), Q4 (I agree with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when they explain it to me; p = 0.001), Q14 (I feel free to express myself in a public exposition class; p < 0.001), Q17 (I find that my learning along this course with this teacher in this subject fits my expectations and works satisfactorily; p < 0.001), Q23 (Do I feel limited or restricted by my teacher to express myself?; p < 0.001) and Q24 (Do I consider that my work is truly mine in the end?; p < 0.001) have a p-value equal to or less than 0.001.
Table 4. ANOVA for DstEIt (Own Distance) as the dependent variable
Question | p-value | |
|---|---|---|
Q1 | I understand the course plan, works and wordings | 0.737 |
Q2 | I understand the reasons why my work is right or wrong for my teacher | 0.554 |
Q3 | I understand the reasons why the classmates’ work is right or wrong for my teacher | 0.000 |
Q4 | I agree with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when they explain it to me | 0.001 |
Q5 | I agree afterward with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when I have considered it after a personal or group reflection | 0.023 |
Q12 | I feel free to express myself in a personal correction class with the teacher | 0.669 |
Q14 | I feel free to express myself in a public exposition class | 0.000 |
Q16 | I consider right the level of demand from the teacher | 0.097 |
Q17 | I find that my learning along this course with this teacher in this subject fits my expectations and works satisfactorily | 0.000 |
Q19 | Do I agree with these grades? | 0.035 |
Q21 | Do I feel my teacher receptive when they check out my work? | 0.002 |
Q22 | Do I feel treated with respect by my teacher when they check out my work? | 0.752 |
Q23 | Do I feel limited or restricted by my teacher to express myself? | 0.000 |
Q24 | Do I consider that my work is truly mine in the end? | 0.000 |
On the other hand, Q5 (I agree afterward with the reasons for which my work is right or wrong for my teacher when I have considered it after a personal or group reflection; p = 0.023), Q19 (Do I agree with these grades?; p = 0.035), and Q21 (Do I feel my teacher receptive when they check out my work?; p = 0.002), reach values less than 0.05 and greater than 0.001.
We encounter four patterns in the sigmoidal graphic (Fig. 8) when we sort out the values filtered by the teacher. Then, four graphics render areas of distances in a positive, negative, wide spectrum range, and finally, those data close to the null distance.
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Fig. 8
8a Positive distance area. 8b Negative distance area. 8c Wide spectrum range distance area. 8d Close to the null distance area
First, the depiction around the positive distances area (Fig. 8a) shows only those teachers with distances in the data spread along a sigmoidal curve from near to zero to near the maximum value (1.68). A portion around the zero value has a negative range (Own Distance higher than − 0.5).
When we examined negative distance areas for the same variable (Fig. 8b), we found a group of teachers with positive values below 0.5 for the DstEIt variable.
A wide range of data patterns shows (Fig. 8c) the teachers with complete data series ranging from 1.68 to − 2.15.
Finally, we group some teachers with an Own Distance very close to zero value (Fig. 8d) above and below this line.
The remaining teachers did not fit into these four clear categories.
The mean values of every teacher located with one dot each, obtained from the four types of batches collected in Fig. 8a–d, are shown with the corresponding regression line in Fig. 9.
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Fig. 9
sEIt-m versus DstEIt (Own Distance).
Empathic Survey reliability and validity
For the reliability analysis of the questionnaire’s first-, second-, and third-order constructs, Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega [426] were employed. Construct validity was examined via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), with CFI and RMSEA used as fit indices. Tables 5 and 6 present the results organized by construct.
Table 5. Empathic Survey reliability (internal consistency)
Variables | Variable / Items | α (Pearson) | ω total (Pearson) | α (ordinal) | ω (ordinal) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st generation | 22 items | 0.905 | 0.905 | 0.919 | 0.923 |
2nd generation | sEIt (14 items) | 0.900 | 0.903 | – | – |
Table 6. Empathic Survey validity (internal structure)
Variables | Key evidence |
|---|---|
1st generation | CFA (WLSMV): 1-factor CFI 0.896 / RMSEA 0.189; 2-factor CFI 0.921 / RMSEA 0.166 |
2nd generation | – |
First-generation variables (the 22 Likert items) exhibit high reliability (α ≈ 0.905; ω ≈ 0.905; ordinal ω ≈ 0.923), as do the second-generation variables used in model estimation (α ≈ 0.900; ω ≈ 0.903), indicating precise scores with minimal random error. However, to establish structural validity, the factor structure of the second- and third-generation variables requires further refinement, including the application of a bifactor model, item refinement and a test–retest design in subsequent phases of the study. Accordingly, we regard this phase as an exploratory psychometric evaluation of the Empathic Survey.
We have developed a preliminary estimate of the size effect and obtained a mean difference between sEIt and DstEIt of 0.54 (d≈1.39 on Cohen's scale). The Pearson correlation coefficient is r≈0.81, indicating a positive association between the two variables implied in the Stele Effect. In a simple linear regression, sEIt accounts for about 66% of the variability in DstEIt and yields an effect size of f2≈1.96. The sign test shows that 91% of the observations have sEIt greater than DstEIt, giving g≈0.41. Finally, a chi‑square analysis of high/low categories produces w≈0.63. We might summarize the previous results of this preliminary analise as significant, as indicated by the p-values shown.
Discussion
We consider that the basis for the singularity of the results lies in asking teachers about students’ feelings and comparing their responses with those of the students. The research design may have at least partially overcome the classic limitation of narcissism studies, which involve obtaining data exclusively via self-reports, since the Empathic Survey is not technically a self-report; in fact, it comes from a survey done to students in interrelation with another one done to the teacher in an interview format about what the students think, not about himself/herself. Moreover, as has been indicated, the cognitive overload of the teachers was noted during these interviews, as they were compelled to give information on unfamiliar matters, and in which the cognitive overload of the process could be appreciated, which facilitates the expression of the most unconscious in a more spontaneous response [78, 419].
The evidence for validity is provisional: a confirmatory validation using ordinal estimation (WLSMV), hierarchical omega (ωh), convergent/discriminant and criterion validity is desirable. This pathway will consolidate the substantive interpretation of scores and secure their generalizability.
In terms of research methodology, it is interesting to consider the Hawthorne Effect [427, 428], which is described as the change in behavior that is produced by the fact of being observed. Despite its methodological criticisms there seems to be consensus that changes occur in research that are not clearly attributable to the manipulated variables [429, 430]. This finding is in line with the Social Facilitation effect whereby task performance varies by being observed [431, 432]. In our case the issue is so complex and with such an abundance of variables, with narcissism itself defined in different ways, that we must be alert to the possibility of this happening. The Hawthorne effect illustrates the fact that in an investigation there may be effects that are considered contaminating or distorting, or even placebo, because they are not considered intervening emotional parameters; which once conveniently parameterized, these effects can shed some light on the obscurity of some processes, as we believe is the case with the Stela Effect, where narcissism could be that hidden variable within the emotional competencies of the teacher.
All these biases and many others can contribute to the results of an investigation not being as true as desirable, so we have paid special attention to Ioannidis' corollaries [433]. Our sample size was not small (N = 779), although it is proposed to increase at a later stage. The effect size was not quantified since it was not the object of the research; there was no intervention and therefore no control group, but it is intended to be calculated in the next phase of research in which an intervention on teachers is proposed. An effort will have to be made to limit the size of the effect [434] because it may not be static if the phenomenon is dynamic [435], as we believe to be the case for the Stela Effect. Our research generates hypotheses, it can be considered descriptive and creative, with a wealth of information collected, therefore the PPV (Positive Predictive Value) might be low due to the very nature of the research, which is not a confirmatory design. The design includes definitions, results and analytical modes neatly described with the intention of reducing bias. There is no conflict of interest, and no entity has funded the research for its own benefit. Finally, we believe that the field of research on narcissism in teaching is far from being a hot field; publications are very scarce, and there are no schools interested in contradicting the results of others; and in any case, this has not been the motivation of our research, rather serendipitous in nature.
However, it is worth remembering that, as with the Placebo Effect, biases are not only distortions of perception to be avoided or considered; they are also adaptive and even constructive, as in the case of the Michelangelo Phenomenon [436, 437] or Pygmalion Effect [218], therefore it will be useful to put them to work in our favor. There is broad debate within psychology regarding the efficacy of different techniques and schools [438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445–446] and about the Placebo Effect [447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452–453], even from different disciplines [454, 455]. Some authors believe that the art of medicine is involved in the patient-physician interactions and that analgesia is mediated by therapeutic alliances [456]. Although it is recognized that some of the schools have differential effects, especially the cognitive-behavioral school for some specific problems [457], it seems to be possible to conclude that there are a number of common factors in all successful interventions that are shared by the different therapists and that were already considered before [458, 459, 460, 461–462]. Among them we highlight the bond with the person who helps [463, 464, 465–466], the conceptual scheme that explains the procedure, and the ritual involving active participation by both parties [467, 468]. The generalizations perceived by Frank in the different psychotherapies suggest that the main beneficial effect may consist of accelerating the improvement that would have occurred in any case, i.e. accelerating maturity, which is what we propose, as well as increasing the feeling of self-efficacy proper to a healthy self-esteem. For all this, it is useful to expose a wide range of theoretical foundations and procedures so that teachers can select those most related to their respective particularities.
Habit modification can be examined from different approaches, including Rational Addiction Theory [469]. After all, emotions are useful in an evolutionary sense, even if they are causing suffering, and usefulness is found when we uncover the real reason for the emotion. We suggest that, although visceral reactions may seem irrational or counterintuitive, once their emotional meaning is unraveled and hidden in the unconscious, they are understood as fully adaptive and easier to work with.
In neuroscience there seems to be no disagreement on the issue that affect affects decisions, therefore a distorted affect produces a distorting learning [470] and it is on this that we intervene, as we saw in the self-fulfilling prophecy of the Pygmalion Effect [218].
In any case, in line with Millon, we consider that combining different existing techniques should guide the intervention. In general, the integration of different models is considered viable, challenging and worthwhile [471]. We also understand that the discussion about the model or school to follow is often limiting; most of the time, discussions about the primacy of one model over another are actually ego issues, and the heated confrontations about a model are often limited to discussing small differential aspects that are not relevant, when one author may feel special calling attention to another about the alleged errors of his or her postulates. As we have seen with several effects and models, retorts may refer to perfectly valid methodological issues, but they do not invalidate some simple underlying realities, which is why humans recognize the reality of the behavior described, and we suppose that this is why controversial issues such as Pygmalion, Hawthorne or the Triune Brain [472] continue to be so popular. In recent years, both psychology [473] and psychiatry have recognized the usefulness of integrating different models in order to elaborate formal theories to explain human behavior. Anyway, mistakes are part of the process; it is only a matter of learning from them. If we add to this the broad debate that it is not the school that heals, but the bond, in fact the conclusion is that as long as it is a well-trained professional who has chosen the model that fits him, and the patient the professional who fits him, it does not seem necessary to specify much more, but to offer a wide range of possible techniques, and that professionals respect the choices of others, as valid as their own.
Finally, it seems that the sciences are moving toward a new, more holistic and integrative paradigm, a fusion a fusion of all the above with Goleman's low road and high road [474], Damásio's somatic marker [475], and Kahneman's systems one and two [425], all of them in line with the notion of the unconscious coming from psychoanalysis, and our intervention protocol introduces dynamics to facilitate this awareness.
Intervention proposal with teachers
We propose to treat narcissism as a symptom to take responsibility for, and to move from codependence to authenticity, as a dysfunctional adaptive behavior that covers up the real underlying issue, which is knowing how to love oneself in a healthy way, and that when not knowing how to do so, panics by deploying its entire repertoire of biases to cover up a problem that it believes to be unsolvable. The aim is to work on the attachment system of teachers in their self-esteem, seeking to develop a more secure attachment, which we understand to be the real underlying issue. Solving a symptom does not solve the cause, as painting a dampness does not fix it, as long as the water infiltration is not repaired. Basically, it consists of getting out of the state and understanding that it is the fear or anticipatory anxiety that causes suffering, not the event itself, with teleological character to go to final causes, not to the symptom, stimulating a creative solution that transcends the selective attention to the stimuli that are considered threatening and paralyzing, in an agent and not reactive way. Starting from the automaticity of the emotion of fear that underlies most of the reactive attitudes of narcissists [476, 477] but not only, we propose that awareness that allows us to contemplate the cognitive dissonances without judging them, and to progress through relearning in values toward a higher level of consciousness or self-realization, in connection more with wisdom than with mere knowledge, to make conscious the unconscious on the way to authenticity (Fig. 10).
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Fig. 10
Graphical depiction of the intervention proposal
We consider that the process of maturity of a person goes through learning to look at his or her own defensive attitude with an honest attitude, not as an attempt to deceive but as an evolutionary ally; thus, without opposing, people avoid the defenses that would prevent working on it. In a certain way, narcissistic individuals may have become less sensitive throughout their lives to the consequences of their behavior, or even have acquired learned helplessness, rather than being insensitive to others, so that the option of relearning is possible.
According to Allport's contact hypothesis, group work can enhance the positive aspects of intergroup relations by reducing prejudice [478, 479–480]. Neurotic group behavior can also be considered a common goal. As we have seen, we are all in some way narcissistic and being part of our most intimate self, our reactions are very similar. Therefore, with an intervention scheme such as this, we will be able to attend to the primary emotional needs of the group while also being able to resolve the conflicts that most narcissistic individuals generate, and all this could result in a greater professional performance of both the individual and the group, benefiting everyone in a synergistic way.
We invite us to assume the dual responsibility of student modeling and personal growth, recovering a sense of agency and locus of control as opposed to hoping that things will work out over time. In a practical sense, according to the Action Research Model suitable for fostering quality teaching, it is appropriate to encourage reflective research personnel through continuous training [481]. The teacher assumes the role of learner and participates in research in an educational innovation project for which it will be necessary that the working conditions allow this type of intervention in cycles in a sustainable manner. This also leads us to the interest in resolving the current conflict between teaching and research [135], which we could partly solve with an intervention program that will encourage it as part of the research task, and promote critical meta-thinking in the teachers themselves about their own work [482].
It can be useful to contemplate this as a vital process that welcomes the contradiction, explores it and works on it in a continuous course; without being disturbed by the concept of reaching the goal, it is a path. We propose going through the pain by going through the fear instead of against it, in an attitude of acceptance, which is typical of Experiential Therapy [483]. If we understand the reactions of our body as unconscious messages of our own knowledge about situations that are causing us suffering, and that fighting against them does not resolve them, we can observe them without judging them; by listening to them, we are able to understand the message, and it allows us to discriminate between those situations that we can change and those that we cannot. Most of them are modifiable because at least we can choose how we react to those circumstances, and for those that are not, it is preferable to face them with acceptance. Some authors in relation to these types of intervention mention the relationship with Niebuhr's serenity prayer [484, 485–486], which calls for serenity to accept the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things that can be changed, and wisdom to recognize differences. Or, in other words, from wanting things to be the way I want them to be, to taking responsibility for myself and how to focus in that and knowing let go of the rest.
The Theory of Vacuum on which the authors are currently working, encourages connecting with one's shadow and emptiness, instead of denying them, as a way to work on the dark side and reach higher levels of self-realization, development and maturity, because in the void we find enough space to listen to ourselves and find directions for growth. It is not a new concept in psychology, as we have commented before, since its origins with James and later Perls in Gestalt [324] and Gendlin in Focusing [325, 326], have reinforced the need to establish a necessary emptiness for the association of new sensations that lead to growth [327]. When we are too stressed, our internal pressure is too high to feel much more, there are too many things pressing and interoception is blurred; when we make space, embodiment becomes a way to connect or become aware of personal resources. In the case of narcissists this emptiness manifests itself in their chronic dissatisfaction, since nothing is capable of filling it and they are terrified of boredom. They display abundant attitudes typical of exhibitionism due to their dependence on the gaze of others. In fact, they are considered to be in an acute state of anguish related to emptiness so painful that they consider suicide [487], since the body is a bridge between cognition and emotion, suicide may appear to be the only way to break it in order to stop feeling an intolerable torment.
Since the new models in science do not annul the previous ones, but extend them, just as Quantum or Relativistic Physics do not deny Newtonian Mechanics, we will adopt the most useful aspects we have found in the different intervention models, some more directive, others more creative, in an eclectic and flexible way, with a certain structure but leaving room for self-regulation, as in Lewin's Democratic Models. However, we have found that the classical models of learning allow us to express in a simple way the integrative procedure we propose, in terms of Classical and Operant Conditioning, as shown in Fig. 11.
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Fig. 11
Intervention proposal expressed in behavioral terms of a learning scheme
Our intervention will seek to deepen the unconscious knowledge that sustains the reactive emotions, and then replace the maladaptive habits with more appropriate habits; once their sustainability has been verified, these habits can be automated and gradually incorporated into the unconscious process in its execution, according to the steps of learning [488], combining forgetting with positive reinforcement. The objective is to automate values by reinforcing maturity in order to obtain self-respect. Let us remember that the unconscious processes are both affective and automated processes that are executed without cognition [59, 60], and we will intervene in them in our program, listening to the message of emotions without rejecting it.
It will be taken into account that the arrogance has been reinforced intermittently, because in the short term the narcissist shines, so it is important to discriminate the reinforcement well, what must be eliminated is the reinforcing consequence, the contingency. It is difficult to eradicate because the intermittent reinforcement is very robust in the face of extinction, and because there is a kind of traumatic bond with the contempt of his arrogance, with his discomfort, the egosyntonic question. This resistance to extinction is contemplated in which each failure has reinforced the learned helplessness; if we are not firm, we turn it into a program of variable reinforcement and it is reinforced even more, although setbacks and falls are part of life beyond a program of behavior, and you come back knowing more. We seek to unlearn learned helplessness, which is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy. We want to maintain the positive reinforcement of attention, although nuanced, in a more communal and less egoic way, and eliminate the negative reinforcement of fear, which disappears by avoidance in individuals with dark narcissism. It is proposed to work on coping by sustaining, not avoiding. Short-term consequences are easier to establish than long-term consequences; this delay makes it difficult to establish a relationship. It is useful to explain the concept of punishment, which involves providing a negative reinforcement or withdrawing from a positive one, and the difference between avoiding the person or the behavior, which is the objective. For example, in the face of an offense, we cannot give what is wrongly requested but rather remain because otherwise, it would be punishment, and it is less effective. We will seek to provide positive reinforcement to alternative behaviors such as empathy, assertiveness or maturity.
Aggressiveness may be part of the process of a response burst, with increased activity associated with old reinforcement. Hormonal levels of cortisol, dopamine and serotonin come into play, as do possible transfers of arousal, seeking to dismantle the spiral of violence of reactivity.
In narcissism many things are ambivalent or contradictory, dual, specular, symmetrical or counterintuitive. There is codependence with the student, whom he/she can both despise and need at the same time, the dependence on the teaching context is egosyntonic. For this reason, the popularly known law of the mirror can be very useful, based on Lacan's mirror stage [489] and previous antecedents in Cooley's looking-glass self [490, 491]. The approach is that what bothers you about another is reflecting something of your own, and what you like as well, while if a criticism does not affect you, it is in fact a reflection of the other, but if it hurts you, it has touched you in some way. Others are useful in reflecting directions of growth, shadows and lights, which we can see if we transcend the masks we put on out of insecurity; it takes a lot of security to look at vulnerabilities. The narcissist reflects his own internal devaluation by projecting it onto others, and then resorts to a compensatory adjustment with arrogance, out of panic to see his weakness, avoiding it and masking it by believing it to be unsolvable; however, it is the acceptance of the shadow or weak point that shows the direction of growth.
Daughter of its time, this proposal that we present draws from the sources at its disposal and is enriched with the legacy of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, social psychology, humanism, and body techniques; as well as the fusion of clinical practice and research, and professional practice in various disciplines such as architecture and medicine; and the concurrences from various disciplines such as philosophy, anthropology, sociology, history, literature, astrophysics, neurology, psychiatry, and ethology. Many proposals are not science until science proves it, but this does not mean that before their recognition they lacked veracity; not knowing the exact complexity of the internal mechanism of something does not mean that it cannot be used, like a cell phone, in a popular simile. We accept the limits of current knowledge and operate within uncertainty. Exposure to diverse perspectives enables individuals to identify and embrace congenial elements, thereby facilitating adherence to the intervention.
Protocol
A six-week programme is proposed, and taught by a qualified researcher and therapist, in the following phases:
Presentation and objectives: thinking, feeling, doing. Chained elephant + nine-dot problem + wounded metaphor/scar + stages of competence. We start with metaphors [492] and exercises like the nine-point exercise popularized in 1907 by the puzzles [493, 494–495], to understand the concept of “thinking outside the box”. We invite them to contemplate space for patience in the process [488]; the learning process may be affected by the ups and downs and stages of grief stages in the Kübler-Ross model [496], as he/she has to say goodbye to a part of him/herself, culminating in acceptance. A reluctance to be assisted in deficit areas is to be expected, but once intervention is initiated, the literature confirms that there is greater adherence to follow-up [159]. We suggest congratulating and thanking each achievement and session, understanding the oscillations of the process, language matters, and it is not about magical thinking but about what the philosophy of language calls performative utterances [497, 498–499].
Preparation: absence of judgment. We propose scientific curiosity for a possible awareness. This approach allows for the possibility of moving from an automated scheme of fear/dissociation (no empathy) to maturity/integration. Primus inter pares in a mature way is a balanced meaning, beyond individualistic or communal personal empowerment; as opposed to seeking to be better than everyone else, seeking my best self. From control to respect and acceptance, from codependence to freedom, from dependence to autonomy, from shadow avoidance to shadow integration, from wound to scar, from dysfunctional to functional, from external locus to internal locus, from reactive to proactive, from unconscious to conscious, from judging to validating, from defensive to healthy self-esteem, from victim to agent, and from depression/anxiety to here/now. In addition, through it all, sustainability.
Thinking, theoretical framework. Know thyself. Attachment, bipedalism, and Lorenz videos on imprinting in animals [500, 501], to help understand a precursor or somewhat related behavior to attachment, and thus understand the dysfunctionality of attaching to a figure that does not care for you and developing maladaptive self-care patterns. Unconscious and mask. Self-esteem, self-imposed limitations and secondary benefits, ingroup and outgroup. Trauma, dissociation, coping vs. defenses [502, 503]. Limbic brain, Polyvagal Theory, Stela Effect, beliefs. As we have seen, beliefs are not realities, although they have an enormous motivational force [178], therefore the challenge will be to work on them in a process of integration and maturity. Clinical practice shows us how the consideration that there are nuclear beliefs in exclusionary conflict leads to great suffering, because the subject feels obliged to choose; hence, the usefulness of the nine points exercise to understand the importance of looking outside the box. Knowing and recognizing, views on the biologicist DSM and common question of underlying affect.
Feeling, emotions workshop. Map of vocal bursts [504]. Empathy, body techniques, fear, shame, holding, frustration tolerance, tolerance window. Embodied cognition and body techniques for accessing the unconscious, and deep awareness; they are proposed to integrate the dissociated parts, because dissociation is not only pathological or a disorder, we all in some way fragment parts of us by cognitive dissonance [505]. Learn to stay with the unpleasant feeling in the here now, consider looking at what comes as a gift of life, breathe, flow, interact. We will seek to increase the community approach that allows us to decrease narcissism as a state [506] through various interventions involving body techniques and the option of mindfulness as one of those that can favor prosocial behaviors [507]. It is possible to intervene to increase self-esteem and reduce narcissism, one can be worthy, without the need to be superior to others [508]. Psychodrama, empty chair, role play. Considering the neurological functioning of empathy, it may be necessary to suppress one's own perspective in order to represent the mental state of another, and this may be more difficult in a narcissist who feels permanently threatened and insecure; therefore, the first step is the absence of judgment.
Doing, skills workshop. Once we know the theoretical models that allow us to become aware of the situation of each of the teachers, we can teach them to modify their habits. There is a hierarchy in the intervention, the first thing is safety, to know if my inner self is protected, without giving others permission to offend me (previous emotions workshop); then I can decide whether or not to set my limits, in an assertive and nonreactive way. If I do so, it is as an expression of my dignity and self-respect, and a human being detects one's self-respect and in turn respects it. In any case, if I am not respected, I do not lose my ultimate freedom and I have done well. Coping skills vs. defenses, Mirroring, self-respect, boundaries, your freedom (I am not a requirement for anyone's happiness) and my freedom (my happiness depends on me). Communication, capacity to sustain: holding, handling [509]. Self-regulation and coregulation, win–win [510], Kaizen Method, Philosophy of the Minimum Possible Change or Minimum Viable Product (MVP), to overcome the resistance of inertia.
Closing: values. Compassion, acceptance, gratitude. Kindness and tolerance, progress, not perfection. Humor, attention to camouflage. Self-care pills. Prioritizing, videos of stones. Feedback, integrate and dismiss; let everyone work on the group bond if they wish.
Integrity
We do not feel connected to the clinical orientation that seeks to deceive the patient in order to overcome his or her defenses; lying is not usually effective. We seek to re-educate in a more honest manner with oneself and with others, and we act in the same way, exposing from the beginning what the intervention consists of, the problems they will encounter and the advantages of trying it. We treat them as intelligent adults, in the free exercise of their freedom to decide whether or not to give the intervention a chance.
Along these lines, among other incentives, intervening in attachment has a positive impact not only on the physical health but also on the psychological health of teachers, as shown in the literature reviews [511]. For some authors, individuals with naricssism and high self-esteem differ in communal characteristics such as kindness or morality; therefore, working on them in narcissistic subjects will allow them to maintain a healthier, more mature and stable high self-esteem [512].
Relational psychoanalysis warns of the contraindications of demonizing the narcissist, an aspect that should be taken into account in the intervention so as not to raise more defenses than those already present. The approach is something like considering that they have glasses that distort and limit their sense of deixis, focusing only on themselves, and helping them to adjust to a more appropriate prescription. We all have biases, and working on attachment will allow them to not have to resort so much to their defenses; alternatively, if they do, they learn to consider the effects that their attitudes and decisions have on others. A sensitive response from the professional performing the task is needed, but not a protective or directive response, but rather one that fosters independence through ethical commitment with a real nonfictitious security; in this way, the teacher is trained to replicate these attitudes with his own students. The job is not that the subjects become dependent on the professional who helps them, but that they become independent and autonomous.
However, it is worth considering possible contaminations in the dynamics of interaction, such as the possible eroticization of the transference from a male narcissistic teacher to a female therapist, as well as the commitment necessary to confront the unconscious defense or acting out [13]. It is reasonable to expect a certain degree of confrontation with the guide or teacher emotional manager and even attempts to devalue him or her, as some subjects with more intense narcissistic traits may find a relationship with this professional humiliating, even generating a certain degree of envy, or finding joy in demonstrating the inability of the professional to help and change from idealization to complete devaluation of him or her, which may cause a premature abandonment of the program [513] or an attempt at boycott [265].
Since the objective is not to make the members dependent on the facilitator, but to teach them to look for resources within themselves by encouraging their autonomy, at the end of the program, it will be open to those members who wish to keep a channel of communication open and maintain contact, optionally with face-to-face meetings with the philosophy of the therapeutic community. It may be useful to consider the option of a friendly moderator of the group in turns, and an annual updating seminar.
Practice-oriented synthesis
The proposed intervention aims to equip instructors with specific strategies to apply empathy and to consider others’ interests, beyond the maximization of self-benefit. Among individuals with manipulative or narcissistic traits, it is common to select immediate gains regardless of others’ welfare—indeed, even at their expense—leading to short-term decisions that overexploit shared resources [514, 515]. In the medium and long term, this pattern deteriorates relationships and erodes external validation, which has been linked to a tendency to change contexts [79, 516, 517], with the attendant instability. Consequently, paradoxically, the most sustainable and beneficial stance for those scoring high on narcissism is to learn to relate in a more empathic and sensitive manner, thereby fostering stable bonds. Because this is a pragmatically oriented motivation—aimed at the individual’s greater well-being rather than at others—the clinical experience suggests that, once the mechanism is understood, it is generally well received and encourages engagement, facilitating adherence and the exploration of new behavioral patterns. In the Stela Effect diagram, this would be reflected in learning to move from attitudes and positions located at the lower vertex of the plot toward more prosocial regions situated at the upper end.
Conclusions
We interpret the sigmoid pattern as consistent with prior literature. We further view this approach as a useful experimental framework for empirically testing theoretical propositions that, to date, have been articulated only as conceptual diagrams.
Stela Effect
As a result of our experience in higher education teaching, we noticed the ease with which pupils are fascinated by some teachers even though they show particular traits of narcissism. Therefore, when we found a sigmoidal shape, we coined the “Stela Effect” the one that can explain this kind of behavior, since students seem to act like attracted by a comet tail. It refers to the way in which a brilliant narcissistic teacher, the “starchitect”, will be positively esteemed by students, who are caught in his stellar tail even though there are negative aspects that they do not seem to appreciate.
Although in the initial publications we used “Stele Effect”, perhaps with a translation that was not very accurate, we have adapted it due to its similarity with the Spanish name, “Efecto Estela”. In Spanish, “estela” is the tail, trail or wake from a moving object. Furthermore, in a comet, there is something called an antitail, that is the part of the comet halo located on the front, as a metaphor of a charismatic leader.
The Stela Effect is a descriptive model in development and not a normative model, because narcissism is a construct that we believe describes a variable process even for the individual, in line with some of the contradictions that the literature shows thus far. Recognizing that the laws concerning narcissistic behavior are not yet clear, we believe that the Stela Effect can contribute to the search for explananda [518], because although models may oversimplify human behavior, their value lies in what we can learn from them [519].
We found some clear areas in which we identified certain behavioral patterns (Fig. 12). The upper area of the sigmoid curve is interpreted as representing states experienced as egosyntonic, self-congruent (acceptable to the individual), whereas the lower region may correspond to states experienced as egodystonic, self-discrepant (unacceptable to the individual). The subjects in Fig. 8b in the lower left part of the sigmoid plot correspond to what the literature considers dark narcissism, people with low self-esteem and lack of empathy, who overestimate themselves with respect to the students' appraisals of them. Those in the upper right part, Fig. 8a, coincide with a bright narcissism, and also with mature, healthy and stable people; they are charismatic teachers.
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Fig. 12
Stela Effect. Graphical interpretation of narcissism traits over a sigmoidal shape
In a way, the lower left end of the diagram corresponds to those who believe they are superheroes and discover they are not, while the upper right end is occupied by those who are, in a more or less stable way. A mature person will be the one who manages to maintain stable the bright traces of his narcissism without making them incompatible with his values, while the more unstable and insecure person may oscillate along the sigmoid between brighter and darker traits of narcissism.
Dynamic and dual model of narcissism
We suggest that much of the contradictions surrounding narcissism are due to the dual and dynamic manifestation of narcissism proposed by several authors, and that the Stela Effect could be the exploratory quantification of this model, in line with different aspects of many others, already presented.
The main models are Morf and Rhodewalt's Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model [79, 80], Kernis' Optimal Self-Esteem [81], Psychodynamic Mask Model [255, 256], and the Dual Attitude Model in Social Psychology [418]. The latter proposes that the inconsistency between the conscious and the unconscious is related to Attachment Theory [44], which holds true for adults in a nonconscious, automatic and implicit way. This narcissistic dynamic is caricatured by Rhodewalt and Morf with the paradox of the narcissist's dilemma, who depends on and at the same time feels threatened by those on whom he or she depends, which is why he or she is an unstable and avoidant person in whom adaptive and maladaptive aspects coexist [171]. It is proposed that the variability of narcissism may be due to its condition of process or state beyond its stable structural condition; therefore intervention in this process is possible. The sense of agency and communal aspects increase the possibility of intervention while stress decreases it, which is important when considering that we can all become more or less narcissistic through different moments and situations [520].
From Psychodynamics, unanalyzed shame is seen as a contribution to the negative relationship and therefore a cause of therapeutic failure [521], something that we associate with field dependence and that would be at the lower left end of the sigmoid, on the dark side of the Stela Effect. Relational Psychoanalysis thus offers us a very clear image of what we have parameterized as the of the Stela Effect, in the dialectic of narcissism and its tension between expansion and contraction we see reflected the dark side and the bright side of narcissism. As we saw in Morrison's model [99], the role of shame is nuclear because bypassing it leads to dissociation [100] which leads to remaining on the dark side, while the enactment [267] processes it, and so we go from wanting to be the only one to wanting to be unique, something much more adaptive. Therefore, our intervention will be oriented not to confrontation, to avoid defense; neither it is only oriented to analysis, which appeals to rational cognition; but also, in an affective way, to acceptance, to be able to elaborate and integrate, because we think it is the way to reach to the essence of therapy [522].
We thus find that at least three types of subjects can coexist at the upper right end of the sigmoid:
Those with stable security and high self-esteem, both implicit and explicit. It has been reported before about the teacher who evaluates himself below what the students think and his lack of awareness of his own power [117], something to which a mature person may not attach much importance. We think this kind of teacher is not dependent on external opinions and is interested/focused in their class. They are genuinely charismatic people. They are probably close to what might be termed self-realization, or higher states of consciousness [523].
Bright narcissists, with less stable, apparent security; with explicit high self-esteem but implicit low self-esteem; include two subtypes which are agent/communal [21, 154] and egoistic/moralistic [155]. This might fit with the term “agentic narcissism” that accompanies adaptive qualities, such as expressive and self-assured behavior, peer popularity, and a benevolent approach to conflict [21]. This implies a leadership [20] that elicits fascination toward students, which is why they have the highest scores. Egoistic types are socially skilled enough to know that it is inappropriate to overvalue themselves and consciously lie, displaying false modesty. Although they may be very attractive in the short term, they do not withstand the long term in close relationships by using others for their own interests. Communal or moralistic narcissists, who are austere with themselves and kind to those close to them, but with a weak self-awareness, actually believe that they are doing the right thing, remaining in the murky waters of self-deception.
More insecure narcissists who fear making a fool of themselves by recognizing the score they truly believe they deserve, and these may be at the time of the still photo of the Stela Effect at the top of the sigmoid, although at other times they may be oscillating along it; they may display security in professional practice, but feel insecure in evaluation and lie instinctively, out of fear or embarrassment.
We believe that the proximity of different attitudes at the upper end of the sigmoid, evaluated similarly by students, reflects the easiness with which narcissists confuse others, being irresistibly attractive and at the same time unbearable, since it is easy to confuse them with truly mature people with high self-esteem both implicit and explicit, while at other times they can display their dark side without filtering. The word charisma can be applied to a brilliant narcissist as well as to an upright and genuine person, contributing to the bewilderment.
Individuals in the lower left corner of the sigmoid are more easily identifiable, although they may oscillate along the diagram. They perceive the threat to their narcissistic ego, which becomes a predictor of aggressive behavior [524], since on the dark side of narcissism the subject does not think well of himself or herself but desires it. The teachers in Fig. 8b show the dark side of narcissism. It implies a low self-assuredness and self-esteem, overtly grandiosity [146], arrogance [151], vulnerability [146], disempowered [148], and diffidence [149]. That is why they think they are more positively evaluated than they are. It aligns with other researchers from psychoanalysis and pedagogy [126, 127]. This is also mediated by the trust that one has with the group, producing a greater self-improvement with strangers, which tends to have a more modest attitude if the situation requires it, among more familiar people [525]; therefore, at the end of the course, attitudes may be different from those at the beginning of the course. They are individuals with low self-esteem both explicit and implicit.
In brief, we can see subjects who run the spectrum from the dark to the bright side of narcissism, while others remain mostly at one of the extremes, since the Stela Effect is a snapshot of a dynamic process. There are stable and secure individuals who remain consistent at the upper end because of the life maturity achieved, while others may oscillate along the Stela Effect and over time with a contingent self-esteem.
Overall, we think that, based on this experimental framework, some teachers can move, through an opportunely learning, from the dark to the bright side of narcissism; thus, students can seize the opportunity to learn in a more suitable environment and achieve better results in classes. That is, we propose using the Stela Effect as an educational innovation, to use the teacher's attractive potential in a conscious way.
Future lines
We consider that this research has sufficient robustness to progress to a validation phase. Initially, it seems to us that the clearest variables at play in this research are Narcissism, Self-Esteem, Empathy, Dissociation, Social Desirability and the Stela Effect, which we will analyze together since a concept or construct is well known when the laws that govern it are well known [526].
In an advanced phase, these variables will be assessed pre- and post-intervention, bearing in mind that they may be redefined during the process. To this end, we propose using the NPI inventory [76], the HSNS [527], the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale [528], the DES Scale [529], the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale [530, 531], and a cognitive and affective empathy questionnaire (TECA) [532] for teachers, all of whom have been validated in Spain. Prior to this phase, a more general phase will be conducted in which only the Stela Effect and the aforementioned parameters will be evaluated more cursorily, since most of them are subclinical, using the PAI inventory [167], with the aim of readjusting the use of the other scales and avoiding participant burden.
This approach presents some strengths, alongside its limitations, and could give rise to novel assessment strategies in future research on the narcissism construct. Moreover, we consider that narcissistic behavior is extrapolable to other domains widely described in the literature, such as business, politics, and the artistic and intellectual spheres, to which we envisage extending the study in subsequent phases. Several disciplines such as neurosurgery [533] refer to a concept closely related to narcissism, hubris syndrome, characterized by arrogance and lack of empathy in people with power and success. It has been suggested that placing the physician in the patient’s position contributes to raising awareness of one's own attitude. In this vein, our next interventions contemplate not only schools of architecture and engineering, as in the first phase, but also medical schools.
Planned research design (initial outline):
Preliminary work with the Ethics Committee.
Refinement of aims and hypotheses; sample size determination and power analysis; specification of statistical parameters; data management plan.
Site and course recruitment for fieldwork; briefing of institutional leads; allocation of intervention and control groups.
Contextual adaptation of the questionnaire to each school or faculty (minor wording changes where course content differs).
Scheduling aligned with the academic calendar.
Targeted interviewer training in bias prevention and neutral administration.
T0: Preparatory fieldwork with instructors in a pilot phase (PAI).
Preliminary analysis to determine which instruments to administer to instructors in the first survey of the course (NPI, HSNS, Rosenberg, DES, Marlowe–Crowne); instrument tuning as needed.
T1: Mid-semester fieldwork: Empathic Survey for students and instructors, plus the selected instructor scales.
Interim analysis of first-phase results; refinement of instruments.
T2: Implementation of the six-phase intervention protocol with instructors.
Updating bias-mitigation measures; documented iterative adjustments.
T3: End-of-semester fieldwork: Empathic Survey for students and instructors, plus instructor scales where appropriate.
Statistical analysis: estimation of effect sizes and bias control procedures.
Study review and protocol adaptation.
Dissemination/publication.
Limitations
Although the preliminary analysis reported in the Results section indicates a large effect size, the cross-sectional design does not allow us to estimate the effect size reliably; therefore, in subsequent phases we plan to extend the study using a longitudinal design.
Other methodological limitations concern the absence of a control group, the age of the data, and potential interviewer bias. The inclusion of a control group and the updating of fieldwork will be addressed in future phases, and targeted interviewer training will be implemented to help maintain neutrality during interviews. Given the complexity of the latter issue, we envisage continuous evaluation and iterative adaptation of the measures in order to minimize its impact and foster unprompted, unconstrained responses from participants.
The representativeness bias will be addressed in future phases, contingent on the availability of participating institutions, through measures tailored to the sampling frame (e.g., stratification and/or weighting). In any case, generalization from the current data should be made with caution. Pedagogical inferences are provisional: a cross-sectional design without a control group does not permit causal claims.
Finally, we consider that the Stela Effect may itself be subject to reactivity if an instructor is aware of its meaning when completing the Empathic Survey in later phases; this could manifest as an incentive to remain at zero distance—the region indicating greater knowledge of students’ feelings—or to seek higher evaluations and drift toward the upper-right quadrant. Should we detect a departure from the original response pattern, we will address it progressively, adjusting the protocol and the measures accordingly.
Author contributions
LB wrote the main manuscript text, original figures and ran the statistical analysis. CG-B has prepared figures and the statistical section. MÁ-M, JB, MÁO, BT have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This paper was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Plan Estatal de I + D + I 2013–2016) and co-financed by the European Development Regional Fund “A way to achieve Europe” (ERDF) and B2017/BMD-3804 MITIC-CM, and B2020/MITICAD-CM and Halekulani S.L.
Data availability
The data used to support the findings of the present study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Declarations
Ethical approval and consent to participate
The data and information collected complied with current legislation on data protection (Organic Law 3/2018 of December 5, Protection of Personal Data and Guarantee of Digital Rights and Regulation (EU) 2016/679, following what was established by the Ethics Committee in Experimental Research of Universitat de València. This study was carried out in accordance with the basic ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence and distributive justice, following the statements of Good Clinical Practice, the principles contained in the most recent Declaration of Helsinki (2013) and the Oviedo Convention (1997). Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before the beginning of the study. No minors were included in the study.
Consent for publication
Participants gave consent to publish in the study before the beginning of the study.
Competing interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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