Content area
Phthalates can enter bottled water during production, packaging, and storage due to inadequate contact between the polymer and the chemical used. The research utilized several databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed. Following an extensive search for duplicate and unnecessary information, a total of 10 research selected from a total of 2359 initial publications. The mentioned databases included articles dated from the first of February 2000, to June 10, 2025. The results show that Elham Khanniri, Mohammed F. Zaater, and Iman Al-Saleh had the highest mean concentrations of DEP (0.97 µg/l), DEHP (3.56 µg/l), DBP (6.53 µg/l), and BBP (1.19 µg/l). Based on the result, phthalate concentrations in bottled drinking water across the EMRO region are significantly influenced by storage temperature and duration. High temperatures (25 °C and 40 °C) markedly accelerate the migration of phthalates (like DEP and DEHP) from the plastic, while low-temperature storage (4 °C) effectively prevents this increase.
Introduction
Phthalates are usually added to polymer compounds, particularly polyvinyl chloride (PVC), as polymers to improve their flexibility, resilience, and processing ease (Grosu 2022). Now, phthalates are the main polymers, comprising more than 80% of the total worldwide plastic usage (Giuliani et al. 2020). Phthalates, commonly referred to as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid esters with a chemical structure of C6H4(COO)2RR’, belong to a group of naturally occurring chemicals used in industry. Colorless and tasteless, phthalates are oily fluids with low solubility in water, moderate volatility, and extremely high boiling temperatures (280–4008 C) (Zenkevich and Fakhretdinova 2016). Phthalates, which are contaminants in the atmosphere, undergo a long degradation process. It involves the hydrolysis of the ester bond to form the associated monoester, then the hydroxylation process of the alkyl component, decarboxylation, and eventually, mineralization (Zhu et al. 2022). When phthalates are applied to polymer matrices, they are unable to establish a chemical bond with them. Therefore, these chemicals can readily leave the items, either during their use or after they have been discarded, and may disperse into the surrounding environment, particulate matter, food, and soil (Mohammadi et al. 2024; Net et al. 2015). Their ability to leak and migrate into the environment around them is affected by several factors, such as pH, length of contact, storage temperature, chemical structure, and lipophilicity of the surrounding environment (Hinsinger et al. 2009). Due to their widespread usage, tendency to leak into the environment, and possible harm to the health of humans and the environment, phthalates are of interest to the general public(Dueñas-Moreno et al. 2022; Neisi et al. 2019). The renal, CVD, liver, lung function, and endocrine systems may suffer significant detrimental health impacts as an outcome of exposure to air pollution, food, and phthalates (Afra et al. 2020; Neisi et al. 2019; Tahery et al. 2021; Wang and Qian 2021). The primary health risks result from the ability of phthalates and their derivatives to disrupt hormones. Research on animals and in vitro cultures indicates that phthalates have minor estrogenic and anti-androgenic properties, which can have adverse effects on development and reproduction (Hlisníková et al. 2020). The available research on human subjects is currently limited. However, epidemiological investigations indicate associations between exposure to phthalates and negative reproductive effects, such as sexual hormone imbalance, infertility, abnormal growth of breasts, and preterm birth (Radke et al. 2019). Research also demonstrates that the presence of phthalates has been associated with modifications in thyroid hormone levels, increased abdominal fat, resistance to insulin, allergies, and pulmonary allergic reactions (Hyun Kim et al. 2018). The nations in the region of the Middle East, except Israel, as well as those of Africa not covered by AFRO, are provided with services by the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office(EMRO). EMRO provides services to Pakistan. Ahmed Al-Mandhari, a national of Oman, is the regional director (Issawi 2013).
Considering the escalating sources of phthalates and their pathways into bottled drinking water, along with the significant health risks associated with exposure, a thorough investigation of phthalate concentrations in drinking water is important. This paper attempts to examine and meta-analyze phthalate contents in bottled water, taking into account the consumption levels in EMRO nations and existing research on this issue.
Materials and methods
Search strategy
A comprehensive search was done using all studies available until March 30, 2024, to evaluate the concentrations of phthalates in drinking water in EMRO. A comprehensive search was done across several databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and PubMed, to find original research papers on the subject matter. English keywords have been selected using PubMed’s MeSH terms. To increase searching sensitivity, truncation was employed after some words. The main keywords used for doing article searches in PubMed were: (((((((((((((((((((((((“Afghanistan”) OR (“Bahrain”)) OR (“Djibouti”)) OR (“Egypt”)) OR (“Iran”)) OR (“Iraq”)) OR (“Jordan”)) OR (“Kuwait”)) OR (“Lebanon”)) OR (“Libya”)) OR (“Morocco”)) OR (“Oman”)) OR (“Pakistan”)) OR (“the State of Palestine”)) OR (“Qatar”)) OR (“Saudi Arabia”)) OR (“Somalia”)) OR (“Sudan”)) OR (“Syrian Arab Republic”)) OR (“Tunisia”)) OR (“United Arab Emirates”)) OR (“Yemen”)) AND (((((((((((((((((((((“DEHP“[Title/Abstract]) OR (“Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Di 2 Ethylhexylphthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Di-2-Ethylhexylphthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Phthalate, Dioctyl“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Dioctyl Phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Phthalate, Diethylhexyl“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Phthalate, Dibutyl“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Di-n-Butyl Phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Di n Butyl Phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Phthalate, Di-n-Butyl“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Butyl Phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Phthalate, Butyl“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“butyl benzyl phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“BBPHT“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“benzyl butyl phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“dihexyl phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“phthalic acid dihexyl ester“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“phthalate“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“di(2-methylglycol)-phthalate“[Title/Abstract]))) AND (((((“Water, Drinking“[Title/Abstract]) OR (“Potable Water“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Water, Potable“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Bottled Water“[Title/Abstract])) OR (“Water, Bottled“[Title/Abstract])).
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The current systematic review only chose studies that have the following features:
Completely available Studies
The papers solely focused on measuring the level of phthalates in the drinking water of the cities in EMRO
Papers that are accessible only in English
Nevertheless, some items failed to meet the required criteria for their utilization.
PowerPoint slides
Literature
Documentation for Conferences
Email to the editor
Reviews articles
Literature search
Figure 1 depicts the process diagram of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), which serves as the basis for the papers on study preparation and item selection. Several papers have been found during the preliminary search. During the first screening, 2113 papers containing relevant keywords were found. Based on a review of their title and abstracts, 2203 articles that were not related were removed from the study. After a thorough review of the whole article, 103 articles were chosen as suitable for inclusion on the grounds of adequate data presentation. Studies that have been done over many years and cities to gather the necessary data have been included in the current overview. Everyone was seen as an autonomous inquiry. Eventually, a total of 10 investigations were taken into the meta-analysis.
Statistical analysis
The software STATA was used to do a statistical evaluation of the information. The mean of different phthalate concentrations can be calculated to estimate the effect size. General statistics, such as the mean, standard deviation (SD), and sample size, are essential for research reports. Cochrane’s Q statistics are employed to carry out heterogeneity evaluation, where a low P-value shows the existence of heterogeneity. Furthermore, the I^2 index is employed to evaluate the level of heterogeneity, where can I^2 value below 40% indicates negligible heterogeneity and an I-2 value above 75% indicates substantial heterogeneity. The DerSimonian-Laird approach is used in a random-effects systematic literature review to adjust for heterogeneity. In the absence of heterogeneity, a model with fixed effects is employed.
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 1
Representation of the search strategy based
Artificial intelligence tools (Chat GPT 5.1) were used to improve the grammatical quality of the manuscript. This sentence does not affect the scientific content, results, or conclusions of the study; it is solely intended to disclose the use of AI for language refinement.
Result
The phthalate levels in potable water were studied in 10 studies under the EMRO region. The study is focused on three Tehran, Isfahan, and Sari cities in Iran, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Jordan. The comprehensive information relating to their research endeavors is shown in Table 1, including the authors’ names, study year, size of sample, kind, level, and separation criterion of the phthalates that were evaluated. Measurements of phthalates in Tehran’s potable water have been taken in 4 of the 8 studies done in Iran. The studies mentioned above were done at a frequency of three years, in particular in Jedi et al. (2015), Jedi et al. (2016a, b), Abtahi et al. (2019), and Mehraei et al. (2022). Just one investigation (Yousefi et al. 2019) focused on the city of Sari, while three studies Esteki (Esteki et al. 2021), Abdulnejad et al. (2018), Pourzmani et al. (2020) focused on the city of Isfahan. The cities of Sari, Iran (110), and Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (150) reported the highest sample sizes. Tehran (6) and Isfahan (7) likewise have the lowest sample sizes. The current investigation evaluated DEHP, DBP, BBP, and DEP phthalates in potable water. In the present research, Khanniri et al. reported the lowest levels of DEP (0.0097), DEHP (0.0023), and DBP (0.0096). The lowest known level of BBP (0.003) was also recorded by Jedi et al (2016a, b). The highest levels of DEP, DEHP, DBP, and BBP were recorded by Al-Saleh (1.215) (Al-Saleh et al. 2011), Mehrai (2.22)(Mehraie et al.), Zaater (1.8) (Zaater et al. 2014), and Mehrai (0.93)(Mehraie et al.).
Table 1. Studies of phthalates measured in drinking water in EMRO
Date | City | Sample Size | Phthalates | Mean Concentration(µg/l) | SD | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2023 | Iran | 39 | DEP | 0.97 | 0.095 | (Khanniri et al. 2024) |
DEHP | 2.32 | 0.56 | ||||
2011 | Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) | 50 | DEHP | 0.752 | 0.125 | (Al-Saleh et al. 2011) |
DBP | 0.74 | 0.102 | ||||
DMP | 0.101 | 0.031 | ||||
BBP | 1.19 | 0.52 | ||||
2014 | Irbid (Jordan) | 24 | DEHP | 3.56 | 0.93 | (Zaater et al. 2014) |
DBP | 6.53 | 2.51 | ||||
2016 | Tehran (Iran) | 7 | DEHP | 0.411 | 0.161 | (Jeddi et al. 2016a, b) |
DBP | 0.116 | 0.095 | ||||
BBP | 0.02 | 0.004 | ||||
2017 | Cairo (Egypt) | 24 | DEHP | 0.396 | 0.08 | (Zaki and Shoeib 2018) |
DBP | 0.227 | 0.034 | ||||
DEP | 0.017 | 0.003 | ||||
2019 | Sari (Iran) | 110 | DEP | 0.75 | 0.08 | (Yousefi et al. 2019) |
DEHP | 0.77 | 0.11 | ||||
DBP | 0.8 | 0.43 | ||||
2019 | Isfahan (Iran) | 33 | DEP | 0.041 | 0.011 | (Abdolahnejad et al. 2018) |
DEHP | 0.149 | 0.032 | ||||
DBP | 0.023 | 0.0068 | ||||
BBP | 0.039 | 0.0094 | ||||
2019 | Tehran (Iran) | - | DEHP | 0.217 | 0.19 | (Abtahi et al. 2019) |
DBP | 0.135 | 0.05 | ||||
2022 | Tehran (Iran) | 40 | DEP | 0.5 | 0.17 | (Mehraie et al. 2022) |
DEHP | 2.22 | 0.76 | ||||
DBP | 0.5 | 0.21 | ||||
BBP | 0.93 | 0.3 | ||||
2023 | Isfahan (Iran) | 7 | DEHP | 0.077 | 0.095 | (Pourzamani et al. 2020) |
DBP | 0.039 | 0.021 |
The mean level of DEP in EMRO nations is reported in Fig. 2, which shows the findings of a combination of six main investigations conducted in Cairo City (Egypt), Isfahan City (Iran), and Tehran City (Iran) in the years 2017 and 2023. The estimated pooled mean level of DEP is 0.49, accompanied by a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.16 to 0.83. Given that I^2 = 99.81%, the primary studies exhibited heterogeneity, therefore necessitating the utilization of the random effect model. Tehran had the highest reported content of phthalates in drinking water (0.97, CI: 0.78–1.16), whereas Zaki et al. reported the lowest average value (0.02, CI: 0.01–0.02).
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 2
Combined findings of DEP
Figure 3 presents the mean level of DEHP in EMRO countries. It depicts the results of 10 important studies done in Kario City (Egypt), Riyadh City (Saudi Arabia), Tigris City (Iraq), Irbid City (Jordan), Isfahan City (Iran), and Tehran City (Iran). With a 95% confidence interval range from 0.29 to 1.30, DEHP’s predicted pooled average concentration is 0.80. Based on the findings that I^2 = 97.93%, the main investigations showed heterogeneity, thus requiring a random effect model. The highest measured concentration of phthalates in potable water (2.32, CI: 1.22–3.42) was found in Tehran(2022), whereas the lowest mean value (0.08, CI: -0.11-0.26) was reported by Pourzamani et al.
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 3
Combined findings of DEHP
The mean DBP concentration for EMRO countries is depicted in Fig. 4. The document provides the results of 9 major investigations done in Cairo City(Egypt), Riyadh City(Saudi Arabia), Tigris City(Iraq), Irbid City(Jordan), Isfahan City(Iran), and Tehran City(Iran). The anticipated pooled mean concentration of DBP is 0.28, with a confidence interval of 95%, ranging from 0.09 to 0.48. The main investigations revealed heterogeneity, indicating the need for a random effect model, as indicated by the findings that I^2 = 98.27%. Irbid(Jordan) showed the highest recorded level of phthalates in drinking water, with a mean value of 6.53 and a confidence interval that varied from 1.61 to 11.45. In contrast, Abdolahnejad et al. observed a minimum average value of 0.02, with a confidence interval ranging from 0.01 to 0.04.
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 4
Combined findings of DBP
In EMRO countries, the average concentration of BBP is depicted in Fig. 5. The paper includes the findings of 5 important studies carried out in Riyadh City(Saudi Arabia), Isfahan City(Iran), and Tehran City(Iran). The pooled mean level of DBP is anticipated to be 0.29, with a confidence interval of 95% that ranges from − 0.08 to 0.67. According to the obtained I^2 value of 99.85%, the main studies showed heterogeneity, hence necessitating the use of a random effect model. The study conducted in Riyadh City(Saudi Arabia) (2011) indicated the highest recorded levels of phthalates in drinking water, with a value of 1.19 (CI: 0.21–2.17). Conversely, Zare Jeddi et al. observed a mean concentration of 0.02 (CI: 0.01–0.03).
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 5
Combined findings of BBP
3D graph (Temperature-Time-Concentration)
Figure 6 (a, b,c) shows the relationship between three key variables: storage time, storage temperature, and phthalate concentration in drinking water bottles. The color of the points usually also represents the concentration (Z-axis), with darker/warmer colors (like red and yellow) indicating higher concentrations and lighter/cooler colors (like blue) indicating lower concentrations. The primary interpretation of Graph 6 (a) clearly shows that two factors, temperature and duration, are associated with the increase in DEP concentration:
Effect of Temperature on Concentration
Low Concentrations: All data points stored at a temperature of 4 °C have a very low phthalate concentration (close to 0 or in the range of 0.01 to 0.04). This indicates that low temperature effectively prevents the transfer of phthalates into the water, regardless of the storage duration.
High Concentrations: The highest phthalate concentrations (yellow and red points with concentrations around 0.85 and 0.96) are observed exclusively at high temperatures (25 °C and 40 °C). This is the strongest result of the graph: higher temperature significantly leads to greater migration of phthalates from the bottle into the water.
Effect of Storage Duration on Concentration
At low temperature (4 °C), increasing the storage duration (from 1 to 4 months) has an insignificant effect on phthalate concentration, and the concentration remains low.
At medium temperature (25 °C), concentrations increased from 0.017 (2 months) to 0.029 (6 months) and an outlier point to 0.85 (1 month). This scatter suggests that, in addition to temperature and time, the material of the bottle or a specific phthalate model might also be influential at this temperature. Still, generally, a longer time can lead to more migration (especially if the temperature is high).
At high temperature (40 °C), at a duration of 3 months, concentrations are very high (0.96 and 0.14).
The main conclusion from graph 6a is that temperature is the most important factor influencing phthalate concentration in bottled drinking water. At room temperature (25 °C) and especially at warmer temperatures (40 °C), phthalate concentration can reach very high values. In contrast, storage at low temperatures (4 °C) effectively prevents the increase in concentration, regardless of how long the bottle has been stored.
Figure 6b clearly illustrates how two environmental factors (temperature and time) influence the rate of DEHP migration from a plastic bottle into the water. The distribution of data points (DEHP concentration) in the three-dimensional space confirms the primary influence of temperature, followed by time:
Critical Influence of Temperature on Concentration (Temperature Effect)
At low temperatures (4 °C) Almost all points located at this temperature (regardless of duration) show very low DEHP concentrations (close to zero). This indicates that low temperature effectively prevents the process of DEHP transfer from the plastic into the water.
At high temperatures (25 °C and 40 °C) The highest DEHP concentrations (points at the top of the chart, with darker/redder colors) are seen exclusively in these temperature ranges. This demonstrates a strong positive correlation between increasing temperature and rising DEHP concentration. Heat accelerates the plastic degradation or migration process.
Influence of Storage Duration (Duration Effect)
At low temperatures (4 °C) The storage duration (up to 6 months) has a negligible effect on the low concentrations.
At High Temperatures (25 °C and 40 °C): At these temperatures, it is observed in some cases that points with longer storage durations (4 or 6 months) have higher concentrations compared to points with shorter durations (1 or 2 months) (although the effect of time is less dramatic than the effect of temperature). This suggests that under unfavorable environmental conditions (high temperature), prolonging the storage time increases the risk of DEHP migration.
Figure 6c is a schematic view to show the effect of storage duration (months) and storage temperature (°C) on the concentration of DBP (presumably Dibutyl Phthalate) in bottled water. It appears that moderate temperatures (around 5–7 °C), especially with longer (or medium) storage durations, provide the conditions where the greatest increase in DBP concentration (up to the 30–40 unit range) occurs. Storage at very low temperatures (1–3 °C) or very high temperatures (9–10 °C), as well as storage for very short durations, generally leads to the maintenance of lower DBP concentrations (0–10 units).
[See PDF for image]
Fig. 6
(a-c): 3D graph of Phthalate concentration Variations (Temperature-Time-Concentration)
Discussion
This research conducted a systematic review of phthalate concentrations in drinking water from the EMRO region. For this reason, the results of twelve studies conducted in EMRO were selected. The levels of five kinds of phthalates, namely DEHP, DEP, DBP, and BBP, were further studied in the approved studies about drinking water.
The research done by Iman Al-Saleh (0.49 µg/l) and Khanniri (0.0097 µg/l) showed the maximum and minimum amounts of DEP in potable water, respectively. Mudhaf et al. recorded five phthalate substances in bottled water made in the country. The DEP concentration was measured to be 113.98 ng/l. 26.9% of the four phthalates evaluated had been identified in DEP (Al-Mudhaf et al. 2009). Luks-Betlej et al. recorded the presence of DEP in water bottles from Poland and Germany (Luks-Betlej et al. 2001). DEHP has been studied in seven Iranian studies. In a research done by Mehraie et al., the Iranian drinking water showed the highest amounts of DEHP (2.23 µg/l), whereas Elham Khanniri reported the lowest levels (0.0023 µg/l). Extremely high amounts of DEHP, an important phthalate component, are found around the world. This finding matches prior studies carried out in Taiwan (Yang et al. 2014). The evaluation of Canadian samples of drinking water for PAE has been conducted by Cao. He found an average DEHP concentration of 0.1 µg/L (Cao 2008). According to the results reported by Amiridou and Voutsa (2011), the mean concentration of DEHP in potable water bottle samples in Greece was found to be 0.580 µg/L. No PAEs have been identified in Chinese bottled water specimens, as reported by Wu et al (2012). In China, Luo et al. did a study to assess the concentrations of PAE in both minerals and urban water supplies. The mean level of DEHP in natural water was found to be 0.69 µg/L, whereas in water from cities, it was 3.3 µg/L (Hamidi et al. 2021). Moazzen et al. showed that the average phthalate concentration in drinks with Iranian flavors was 2.61 µg/L(Dobaradaran et al. 2020). The research done by Mohammed F. Zaater (1.79 µg/L) and Elham Khanniri (0.0096 µg/L) showed the maximum and minimum amounts of DBP in drinking water, respectively. The samples revealed a slight increase in phthalates after being kept outside for 10 weeks (Casajuana and Lacorte 2003). The research by Iman Al-Saleh (0.4 µg/L) and Maryam Zare Jeddi (0.003 µg/L) showed the maximum and minimum amounts of BBP in potable water, respectively. According to Saleh et al., BBP was the major phthalate detected at an average temperature of 4 °C, at room temperature, and in sunlight. The highest amounts of BBP (4.592 ± 3.081 ± g/L) were detected at a temperature of 4 °C (Al-Saleh et al. 2011). Since the WHO and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have set an MCL of 6 to 8 µg/L for phthalates in potable water, none of the specimens evaluated in this study exceeded this threshold (Yousefi et al. 2019). Phthalates in potable water and their migration into drinkable water are affected by temperature, reusable paper and plastic packaging, water distribution pipelines, and sunlight, according to studies (Ranjan et al. 2021). Abdolahnejad et al. claimed mean values of 39.14, 149.03, 20.08, and 39.12 ng/l in all samples during the summertime for DEP, DEHP, DBP, and BBP. Wintertime means values have been reported as 29.12, 99.22, 16.01, and 69.14 ng/l. The summertime had a higher average concentration of all phthalate, except BBP, when compared to the wintertime. The disparity in phthalate concentrations between wintertime and summertime can be due to the rising temperatures in summertime, as warmer temperatures lead to an elevation in phthalate concentrations (Rudel and Perovich 2009). September was the month having the highest PAEs, as reported by He et al (2013). According to Jeddi et al.‘s research, the period the bottles had been stored and their exposure to light from the sun both affected the number of phthalates released into the drinking water containers. After forty-five days of being kept in the sun, researchers reported that the levels of DEHP in bottled water rose from 0.41 to 0.79 µg/L. The research by Yousefi et al. showed that the concentrations of DEHP in all of the control specimens were found to be below the minimum acceptable level. Upon being faced with elevated temperatures and extended periods of storage compared to other phthalate esters, DEHP revealed higher amounts. Compared to other phthalates, its level did, however, decrease after a week of keeping and at lower temperatures. The research done by Casajuana et al. indicated poor storage conditions, namely at a temperature of 30 °C for 3 months, due to an increased concentration of phthalates, in the potable water. Furthermore, phthalate concentrations found in drinking PET bottles were twenty times higher than those in glass water bottles(Casajuana and Lacorte 2003). At the ambient temperature, Khanniri et al. found that the measured DEP concentrations in the water-drinking containers ranged from 0.79 to 0.91 µg/L. Throughout keeping 3 months at an approximate temperature of 40 °C, the concentration of DEP showed an increase to 1.29 µg/L؛this concentration rise was of statistical significance. Moreover, the mean concentrations of DEHP rose considerably to 3.44 µg/L when the room’s temperature was increased to 40 °C and the storage period was extended to 90 days. It has been shown that high temperatures increase the release of phthalates from plastic bottles used for consumption (Jeddi et al. 2016a, b; Jeddi et al. 2015). Phthalate concentrations in bottled water were studied in a current investigation at 25–42 °C over a longer period. The maximum release of phthalates seems to have happened during 15 days of being kept at a temperature higher than 42°, following our research (Yousefi et al. 2019). Subsequent research found that the level of phthalates in water utilized in bottles increased after six months at a temperature of 40 °C (Rastkari et al. 2017). In addition, Pourzamani et al. reported an important increase in the concentration of DEHP in all plastic bottled water specimens after exposing them to a temperature above 45 °C for three months (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2022). More studies proved that water having high levels of minerals, which had been kept at ambient temperature for 44 days, showed an increase in the amount of DEHP, DBP, and BBP (Keresztes et al. 2013). According to Guart et al., it has been shown that the concentration.
of phthalate in Polyester plastic bottles maintained at room temp for one year was significantly higher when in comparison to those analyzed immediately after being manufactured (Guart et al. 2014). The average phthalate concentrations in water drank from a variety of sources were found by Abtahi et al. as follows: 0.81 ± 0.2 µg/L in the Potable water distribution system, 0.88 ± 0.09 µg/L in bottled water, 1.059 ± 0.19 µg/L in surface water, and 0.81 ± 0.059 µg/L in groundwater samples. Research shows that even a short conversation between plastic and water consumed can result in higher exposure levels to phthalates, so it’s advised to avoid this interaction as much as possible. The middle layer of plastic in recyclable cup paper contains and transfers phthalate. It has been ineffective the probability of phthalate exposure through water drinking by replacing paper cups with reusable ones. Martine et al. (2013) realized that the drinking water bottles were higher in phthalates than the tap water, which is similar to our results. The current investigation found that the amounts of DBP and DEHP in water bottle samples were approximately 50% less compared to the levels seen in Iran by Jeddi et al., which were determined at 0.18 and 0.16 µg/L, respectively. The phthalate concentrations in water were determined to be comparable to the results reported by Domínguez et al. (2014) in Madrid and Martine et al. (Martine et al. 2013) in Paris, with reported concentrations of 1.02 and 0.68 µg/L, respectively. Conversely, phthalates were reported in Chinese bottled water in levels as high as 96 µg/L by Tang et al. (2012). Luo et al. (2018) did a comprehensive investigation that found that Bangkok, Zagreb, and Praha had the highest mean DEHP levels in water bottles. These three cities reported concentrations of 60.01, 8.2, and 6.07 µg/L, respectively. Abdolahnejad et al. were able to determine the sequence of mean phthalate concentrations that are transferred into water bottles through plastic pipes. The mean concentrations of DEP, DEHP, DBP, and BBP in plastic containers were found to be 50.21, 168.79, 20.24, and 61.28 (ng/l), respectively. To increase the adaptability, flexibility, and resilience of polymers, PAE compounds such as DEHP are frequently used as plasticizers. The material can be quickly transferred into water by the use of bottles and manufacturing processes (Amiridou and Voutsa 2011). Based on the results of Santhi et al. (2012) and Serôdio and Nogueira (2006), it was found that the plastic tube water specimens showed notably increased mean concentrations of BPA and PAE in comparison to other tube water. Many substances, including DBP, BBP, DEP, and DEHP, with concentrations from 2.11 to 4.81 ppb, were detected in an investigation including a significant number of Italian bottled water specimens. The levels of the migrating components in bottle glass varied between 0.13 and 0.36 (ppb). When things were packed in PET bottles as compared to glass ones, the concentration of phthalates in the PET bottles was approximately 20 times higher (Montuori et al. 2008). Three main variables can be at play when phthalates are detected in water that has been bottled shortly after it was produced in a factory: phthalates in the water utilized for filling PET bottles, water treatment plants, and water contamination in the packaging factory. In PET, PE, and glass water bottle specimens, phthalates have been determined to be either below or very near detectable limitations, according to Casajuana and Lacorte (2003). The specimens were taken during two months of outdoor storage, and the findings showed substantially higher amounts of phthalates; the maximum average levels for DMP, DEP, DBP, and DEHP were found to be 0.003, 0.432, 0.046, and 0.196 µg/L, respectively. Based on Mukhopadhyay et al. (2022) ‘s research, DEHP is the primary ester present in PET bottled water. They also claimed that after 8 days of storing water with minerals packaged in recovered PET at 45° Celsius, the maximum amount of leaching became visible. Four different types of potable water (sparkling, flavored sparkling, mineral, and drinkable) were found to have significant amounts of DEHP in a study done by Mehraie et al. The bottles of water revealed a range of DEHP content, ranging from 1.51 to 3.04 µg/L. In an investigation done by Abtahi et al., it was determined that DEHP and DMP were the major chemicals identified in bottled water. Also, the number of phthalates showed a notable increase during exposure to sunshine.
Conclusion
The study indicated that temperature, sunlight, and packaging style significantly impact phthalate amounts in drinking water. Phthalates transfer from PET bottles to tap water when exposed to sunlight or heat. To reduce phthalates in bottled water, keep bottles cool and out of the sun. Plastics can be made more flexible and softer by using phthalates, which are utilized as softeners. PVC tubes, plastic flooring, toys, and healthcare equipment are just a few of the many consumer goods that often employ them. Industry researchers are searching for softening agents free of phthalates to solve the issues surrounding phthalates. These alternatives provide phthalate-like chemicals with fewer health and environmental impacts. Recycling makes most phthalate-free softeners durable and reduces fossil fuel use.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Lorestan University of Medical Sciences (LUMS) for providing the necessary facilities to perform this research.
Author contributions
The authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
Funding
None declared
Data availability
The raw data can be obtained on request from the corresponding author.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors state no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
The research ethics committee of Lorestan University of Medical Sciences approved this article under the number IR.LUMS.REC.1403.501.
Informed consent
Not applicable.
Francesca Macedonio
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
References
Abdolahnejad, A; Gheisari, L; Karimi, M; Norastehfar, N; Ebrahimpour, K; Mohammadi, A; Ghanbari, R; Ebrahimi, A; Jafari, N. Monitoring and health risk assessment of phthalate esters in household’s drinking water of Isfahan, Iran. Int J Environ Sci Technol; 2018; [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-2143-7]
Abtahi, M; Dobaradaran, S; Torabbeigi, M; Jorfi, S; Gholamnia, R; Koolivand, A; Darabi, H; Kavousi, A; Saeedi, R. Health risk of phthalates in water environment: occurrence in water resources, bottled water, and tap water, and burden of disease from exposure through drinking water in Tehran. Iran Environ Res; 2019; 173, pp. 469-479. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.071]
Afra, A; Pardeh, MM; Saki, H; Farhadi, M; Geravandi, S; Mehrabi, P; Dobaradaran, S; Momtazan, M; Dehkordi, Z; Mohammadi, MJ. Anesthetic toxic isoflurane and health risk assessment in the operation room in Abadan, Iran during 2018. Clin Epidemiol Global Health; 2020; 8,
Al-Mudhaf, HF; Alsharifi, FA; Abu-Shady, A-SI. A survey of organic contaminants in household and bottled drinking waters in Kuwait. Sci Total Environ; 2009; 407,
Al-Saleh, I; Shinwari, N; Alsabbaheen, A. Phthalates residues in plastic bottled waters. J Toxicol Sci; 2011; 36,
Amiridou, D; Voutsa, D. Alkylphenols and phthalates in bottled waters. J Hazard Mater; 2011; 185,
Cao, X-L. Determination of phthalates and adipate in bottled water by headspace solid-phase Microextraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A; 2008; 1178,
Casajuana, N; Lacorte, S. Presence and release of phthalic esters and other endocrine disrupting compounds in drinking water. Chromatographia; 2003; 57, pp. 649-655. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02491744]
Dobaradaran, S; Akhbarizadeh, R; Mohammadi, MJ; Izadi, A; Keshtkar, M; Tangestani, M; Moazzen, M; Shariatifar, N; Mahmoodi, M. Determination of phthalates in bottled milk by a modified nano adsorbent: presence, effects of fat and storage time, and implications for human health. Microchem J; 2020; 159, 105516. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.105516]
Domínguez-Morueco, N; González-Alonso, S; Valcárcel, Y. Phthalate occurrence in rivers and tap water from central Spain. Sci Total Environ; 2014; 500–501, pp. 139-146. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.08.098]
Dueñas-Moreno, J; Mora, A; Cervantes-Avilés, P; Mahlknecht, J. Groundwater contamination pathways of phthalates and bisphenol A: origin, characteristics, transport, and fate–a review. Environ Int; 2022; 170, 107550. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107550]
Esteki, F; Karimi, H; Moazeni, M; Esfandiari, Z; Zarean, M; Pourzamani, H. Risk assessment of phthalate compounds in bottled water consumed in Isfahan, Iran. J Food Qual Hazards Control; 2021; [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.18502/jfqhc.8.2.6470]
Giuliani, A; Zuccarini, M; Cichelli, A; Khan, H; Reale, M. Critical review on the presence of phthalates in food and evidence of their biological impact. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 2020; 17,
Grosu E (2022) Applications of Polyvinylchloride (PVC)/thermoplastic nano-, micro-and macroblends. In: Visakh PM, Darie-Nita RN (eds) Polyvinylchloride-based Blends. Springer Series on Polymer and Composite Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78455-3_4
Guart, A; Bono-Blay, F; Borrell, A; Lacorte, S. Effect of bottling and storage on the migration of plastic constituents in Spanish bottled waters. Food Chem; 2014; 156, pp. 73-80. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.075]
Hamidi, S; Taghvimi, A; Mazouchi, N. Micro solid phase extraction using novel adsorbents. Crit Rev Anal Chem; 2021; 51,
He W, Qin N, Kong X, Liu W, He Q, Ouyang H, Yang C, Jiang Y, Wang Q, Yang B, Xu F (2013) Spatio-temporal distributions and the ecological and health risks of phthalate esters (PAEs) in the surface water of a large, shallow Chinese lake. Sci Total Environ 461–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.049
Hinsinger P, Bengough AG, Vetterlein D, Young IM (2009) Rhizosphere: biophysics, biogeochemistry and ecological relevance. In: Springer
Hlisníková, H; Petrovičová, I; Kolena, B; Šidlovská, M; Sirotkin, A. Effects and mechanisms of phthalates’ action on reproductive processes and reproductive health: a literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 2020; 17,
Hyun Kim, D; Choi, M; Soo Lim, S; Roh, D; Jun Kwack, T; Yoon, S; Kim, SK; Yoon, MS; Kim, KS; Kim, W. Risk assessment of endocrine disrupting phthalates and hormonal alterations in children and adolescents. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A; 2018; 81,
Issawi C (2013) An economic history of the middle East and North Africa. Routledge
Jeddi, MZ; Rastkari, N; Ahmadkhaniha, R; Yunesian, M. Concentrations of phthalates in bottled water under common storage conditions: do they pose a health risk to children?>. Food Res Int; 2015; 69, pp. 256-265. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2014.11.057]
Jeddi, MZ; Rastkari, N; Ahmadkhaniha, R; Yunesian, M. Endocrine disruptor phthalates in bottled water: daily exposure and health risk assessment in pregnant and lactating women. Environ Monit Assess; 2016; 188,
Jeddi, MZ; Rastkari, N; Ahmadkhaniha, R; Yunesian, M. Endocrine disruptor phthalates in bottled water: daily exposure and health risk assessment in pregnant and lactating women. Environ Monit Assess; 2016; 188, pp. 1-16. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5502-1]
Keresztes, S; Tatár, E; Czégény, Z; Záray, G; Mihucz, VG. Study on the leaching of phthalates from polyethylene terephthalate bottles into mineral water. Sci Total Environ; 2013; 458–460, pp. 451-458. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.056]
Khanniri, E; Bayanati, M; Koushki, MR; Ferdosi, R; Sohrabvandi, S; Esmaeili, S; Akbari, ME; Forouhar, P. Migration of bisphenol A and several phthalate acid contaminants into bottled drinking water: influence of storage conditions and their health risks. Int J Environ Anal Chem; 2024; 104,
Luks-Betlej, K; Popp, P; Janoszka, B; Paschke, H. Solid-phase Microextraction of phthalates from water. J Chromatogr A; 2001; 938,
Luo, Q; Liu, ZH; Yin, H; Dang, Z; Wu, PX; Zhu, NW; Lin, Z; Liu, Y. Migration and potential risk of trace phthalates in bottled water: A global situation. Water Res; 2018; 147, pp. 362-372. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.10.002]
Martine, B; Marie-Jeanne, T; Cendrine, D; Fabrice, A; Marc, C. Assessment of adult human exposure to phthalate esters in the urban centre of Paris (France). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol; 2013; 90,
Mehraie A, Shariatifar N, Arabameri M, Moazzen M, Mortazavian AM, Sheikh F, Sohrabvandi S (2022) Determination of phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in bottled water distributed in tehran: a health risk assessment study. Int J Environ Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2062239
Mohammadi MJ, Farhadi M, Ghanbari S, Sepahvnand A, Dehvari M, Neisi M, Sharifi M, Bayat M (2024) The concentration of phthalates in drinking water in iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Toxicology Reports
Montuori, P; Jover, E; Morgantini, M; Bayona, JM; Triassi, M. Assessing human exposure to phthalic acid and phthalate esters from mineral water stored in polyethylene terephthalate and glass bottles. Food Addit Contam Part Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess; 2008; 25,
Mukhopadhyay, M; Jalal, M; Vignesh, G; Ziauddin, M; Sampath, S; Bharat, GK; Nizzetto, L; Chakraborty, P. Migration of plasticizers from polyethylene terephthalate and Low-Density polyethylene casing into bottled water: A case study from India. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol; 2022; 109,
Neisi, A; Albooghobeish, M; Geravandi, S; Behrooz, A; Mahboubi, HR; Omidi Khaniabad, M; Valipour, Y; Karimyan, A; Mohammadi, A; Farhadi, M. Investigation of health risk assessment Sevoflurane on indoor air quality in the operation room in Ahvaz City. Iran Toxin Reviews; 2019; 38,
Net, S; Delmont, A; Sempéré, R; Paluselli, A; Ouddane, B. Reliable quantification of phthalates in environmental matrices (air, water, sludge, sediment and soil): a review. Sci Total Environ; 2015; 515, pp. 162-180. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.013]
Pourzamani H, Keshavarz M, Moazeni M, Heidari Z, Zarean M (2020) Effect of common storage condition on the release of phthalate contaminants of bottled water in polyethylene terephthalate: a chemical analysis and human health risk assessment. Int J Environ Health Eng (IJEHE), 2020:1-9
Radke, EG; Glenn, BS; Braun, JM; Cooper, GS. Phthalate exposure and female reproductive and developmental outcomes: a systematic review of the human epidemiological evidence. Environ Int; 2019; 130, 104580. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.003]
Ranjan VP, Joseph A, Goel S (2021) Microplastics and other harmful substances released from disposable paper cups into hot water. J Hazard Mater 404(Pt B) 124118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124118
Rastkari, N; Zare Jeddi, M; Yunesian, M; Ahmadkhaniha, R. The effect of storage Time, temperature and type of packaging on the release of phthalate esters into packed acidic liquids. Food Technol Biotechnol; 2017; 55,
Rudel, RA; Perovich, LJ. Endocrine disrupting chemicals in indoor and outdoor air. Atmos Environ (1994); 2009; 43,
Santhi VA, Sakai N, Ahmad ED, Mustafa AM (2012) Occurrence of bisphenol A in surface water, drinking water and plasma from Malaysia with exposure assessment from consumption of drinking water. Sci Total Environ 427–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.04.041
Serôdio, P; Nogueira, JM. Considerations on ultra-trace analysis of phthalates in drinking water. Water Res; 2006; 40,
Tahery N, Zarea K, Cheraghi M, Hatamzadeh N, Farhadi M, Dobaradarn S, Mohammadi MJ (2021) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and air pollution: a review. Jundishapur J Chronic Disease Care 10(1):e110273. https://doi.org/10.5812/jjcdc.110273
Tang, CY; Li, AQ; Guan, YB; Li, Y; Cheng, XM; Li, P; Li, SQ; Luo, YX; Huang, Q; Chen, HY; Cui, LX. Influence of polluted SY river on child growth and sex hormones. Biomed Environ Sci; 2012; 25,
Wang Y, Qian H (2021) Phthalates and their impacts on human health. Healthcare
Wu, Q; Liu, M; Ma, X; Wang, W; Wang, C; Zang, X; Wang, Z. Extraction of phthalate esters from water and beverages using a graphene-based magnetic nanocomposite prior to their determination by HPLC. Microchim Acta; 2012; 177, pp. 23-30. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00604-011-0752-7]
Yang, GC; Yen, C-H; Wang, C-L. Monitoring and removal of residual phthalate esters and pharmaceuticals in the drinking water of Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. J Hazard Mater; 2014; 277, pp. 53-61. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.03.005]
Yousefi, Z; Ala, A; Babanezhad, E; Ali Mohammadpour, R. Evaluation of exposure to phthalate esters through the use of various brands of drinking water bottled in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) containers under different storage conditions [Original Article]. Environ Health Eng Manage J; 2019; 6,
Zaater, MF; Tahboub, YR; Al Sayyed, AN. Determination of phthalates in Jordanian bottled water using GC–MS and HPLC–UV: environmental study. J Chromatogr Sci; 2014; 52,
Zaki, G; Shoeib, T. Concentrations of several phthalates contaminants in Egyptian bottled water: effects of storage conditions and estimate of human exposure. Sci Total Environ; 2018; 618, pp. 142-150. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.337]
Zenkevich, I; Fakhretdinova, L. Chromatographic and chromatospectral characteristic of Dicarboxylic acid monoesters. J Anal Chem; 2016; 71, pp. 1204-1214. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1134/S106193481612011X]
Zhu, Z; Rao, R; Zhao, Z; Chen, J; Jiang, W; Bi, F; Yang, Y; Zhang, X. Research progress on removal of phthalates pollutants from environment. J Mol Liq; 2022; 355, 118930. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2022.118930]
© The Author(s) 2025. This work is published under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.