Content area
Abstract
Persistent racial disparities remain in suspension rates among Black and Latine students in U.S. schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2016, 2023). National data show that 12% of Black students are suspended at least once, compared to only 3% of White students (Leung-Gagné et al., 2022). In response, many schools have implemented restorative practices, drawn from Restorative Justice principles, to reduce exclusionary discipline. Research generally supports their effectiveness in lowering suspension rates (Augustine et al., 2018; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Fronius et al., 2019), yet racial disparities persist despite overall declines (Davison et al., 2022; González, 2015; Gregory et al., 2018). These disparities may stem from racialized interpretations of student behavior influenced by adult implicit bias and colorblind beliefs (Staats, 2014).
This dissertation introduces the Racially Conscious Restorative Model (RCRM), a revised theoretical framework designed to address these inequities. The model emphasizes cultivating color consciousness—the capacity to recognize and critically reflect on how race and racism operate both systemically and individually—as a mechanism for reducing racial disparities in discipline (Ullucci & Battey, 2011; Williams III et al., 2023). The quantitative component evaluates relationships among restorative practices, adult racial beliefs, and exclusionary discipline using data from the Just Discipline Project (JDP), a multi-year schoolwide intervention (N = 1,695). After two years, both low- and high-fidelity schools showed decreases in office referrals, offenders, and suspensions. However, low-fidelity schools exhibited more colorblind beliefs than control or high-fidelity schools. Color consciousness was associated with reductions in certain exclusionary discipline practices. Findings underscore the importance of integrating adult racial belief systems into restorative frameworks to advance equity in school discipline.