PRINCIPLES OF THE INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AND THE ROLE OF TEACHERS AND IN-SCHOOL PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Abstract

According to the Salamanca Declaration, inclusive education is understood as a developmental approach aiming to meet the educational needs of all children, youth, and adults, emphasizing those who are subjected to marginalization and exclusion. The approach provides equal opportunities for all to reach their maximum potential and achievement. Through a qualitative approach, the practice of inclusive education is explored in Macedonia: the attainment of universal standards, an analysis of the perception and understanding of inclusive education in relation to teachers, in-school professional staff, teacher educators and student teachers, and teachers' perceptions in regard to the possession of competencies needed for inclusive education. Lastly, the existing role and responsibilities of teachers and professional staff is discussed and reconsidered. It was found that there is no consensus in the understanding of inclusive education in the circles of academics and practitioners. Further, teachers often perceive themselves as inadequately prepared to teach children with special needs. Namely, many competencies important for efficient practice are not systematically developed. The conclusion considers ways to ensure support for teachers and students. The role and responsibilities of in-school professional staff should be redefined in a way that allows for their on-going presence, availability, and active participation in the classroom teaching process. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

Abstract

According to the Salamanca Declaration, inclusive education is understood as a developmental approach aiming to meet the educational needs of all children, youth, and adults, emphasizing those who are subjected to marginalization and exclusion. The approach provides equal opportunities for all to reach their maximum potential and achievement.

Through a qualitative approach, the practice of inclusive education is explored in Macedonia: the attainment of universal standards, an analysis of the perception and understanding of inclusive education in relation to teachers, in-school professional staff, teacher educators and student teachers, and teachers' perceptions in regard to the possession of competencies needed for inclusive education. Lastly, the existing role and responsibilities of teachers and professional staff is discussed and reconsidered. It was found that there is no consensus in the understanding of inclusive education in the circles of academics and practitioners. Further, teachers often perceive themselves as inadequately prepared to teach children with special needs. Namely, many competencies important for efficient practice are not systematically developed. The conclusion considers ways to ensure support for teachers and students. The role and responsibilities of in-school professional staff should be redefined in a way that allows for their on-going presence, availability, and active participation in the classroom teaching process.

Key words: inclusive education, competencies, role and responsibilities of teachers and inschool professional staff

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)

Introduction

The Salamanca Statement on Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education (Salamanca Declaration) from 1994 (1) is the cornerstone of understanding the practice of inclusive education. Based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the World Declaration on Education for All, this document also disseminates the philosophy of inclusiveness, mutually with the philosophy of humanism. Inclusive education is understood as a developmental approach aiming to meet the educational needs of all children, youth, and adults, and emphasizing those who are subjected to marginalization and exclusion. Widely understood, it means the inclusion of all children in all classroom and out-of-classroom school activities, and means that all children should have equal opportunities to reach their maximum potential and achievement, regardless of their origin and abilities or disabilities, and regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, or linguistic differencies. The Declaration holds that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities, and learning needs, and educational systems should be designed in a way that takes into account the wide diversity of these characteristics and needs. The Declaration also states that those with special educational needs should have access to regular schools, which should accommodate them within a childcentered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs, "Schools have to find ways of successfully educating all children, including those who have serious disadvantages and disabilities" (1). Such schools with inclusive orientation will effectively fight discriminatory attitudes and will contribute to the development of welcoming, positive communities and inclusive societies.

The Declaration requires all communities and factors in the educational process to reconsider the innovation of education. It demands "new thinking in special needs education," as well as many actions, such as in the field of training educational personnel (focusing on the field of competencies), among other profiles related to education. The Republic of Macedonia has ratified the Declaration, and recommendations have been implemented in the legislation related to education (2-7). In this sense, inclusion should be understood as a process of decreasing exclusion and increasing participation, with recognition, acceptance, and respect. Hereby, inclusive education must be a general approach and philosophy in education.

This means that teaching practice should respond to the individual differences of all students. Such practice demands teachers and in-school professional staff to develop appropriate competencies that involve knowledge, skills, and dispositions in order to teach equitably and promote the learning of all pupils.

Research problem

The universally accepted understanding of inclusive education provokes the need to explore the actual situation in the Macedonian context. The research problem to explore is: does the practice of an inclusive education system in Macedonia meet the standards presented in the related documents? Are the teachers and in-school professional staff (psychologists, special educators, pedagogues, and social workers) prepared for practicing inclusive education? What is the nature of practice of inclusive education in Macedonia? How is inclusive education understood by teachers and in-school professional staff, considering that the practice of inclusive education is determined by this understanding? Is this understanding of inclusive education congruent with the prevalent understanding of inclusive education in the world, and does it contribute to the benefit of children?

This issue is important because practicing inclusive education is strongly determined by the teachers' perception of the children with special needs and by the perception of their capabilities and limitations. Those perceptions are simultaneously the reason and result of the prejudices and stereotypes related to children with special needs. This strongly influences the approach taken toward these children, and the expectations of them. Consequently, it influences the quality of the whole educational process.

The focus of this paper is on the inclusion of children with special needs, with moderate disabilities.

In sum, the research questions are:

What is the perception and understanding of inclusive education in teachers and in-school professional staff?

What is their perception in regard to the possession of competencies needed for inclusive education?

What is their perception in regard to their roles and responsibilities in a related context? Is their role conducive to the demands of inclusive education?

Methodology

Qualitative methodology is implemented in the study, using semi-structured interviews and focus groups. In the preparation phase of desk research, the number of relevant documents related to the legislation of education was analyzed.

Participants and procedure

Aiming to explore various perspectives of the most relevant actors in the educational process, a purposive sample of teachers and in-school professional staff, teacher educators, and student teachers was composed.

Seven focus groups were conducted with teachers from elementary schools, and six to eight participants were in each group, making a total of 51 participants. Participants were from different ethnic backgrounds and the same background as students from schools in which they taught. Two focus groups with teachers were conducted in Debar, a distant town in western Macedonia. Two focus groups were conducted with teachers from three schools in Skopje and rural areas near Skopje. One focus group was conducted with teachers in Bitola, and one focus group with teachers in Veles; towns in southern and central Macedonia. Also, 20 interviews were conducted with teachers, psychologists, special educators and pedagogues. Additionally, 11 interviews were conducted with student teachers from the Faculty of Natural Sciences in Skopje, and 10 with teacher educators from the Faculty of Education and the Faculty of Philosophy in Skopje.

Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted using previously prepared guides (appendixes A-D).

In order to answer the research questions, a platform based on universal declarations regarding inclusive education was considered as a useful reference point. In that context, findings from the regional study Tuning Teacher Education Curricula in the Western Balkans (8), were used, as well as an appropriate set of competencies for practicing inclusive education derived from that research (Appendix E). This study has adopted the methodology of the European Tuning project, which implies that the competencies and learning outcomes need to be articulated in consultation with a few groups: the higher education staff, the students, and the students' future employers.

Results and discussion

Understanding of inclusive education

The question of how inclusive education is understood by teachers and in-school professional staff is substantial because its conceptualization and acceptance determine the teaching practice, both in the classroom and out. The prevalent understanding of inclusive education in most participants is a narrow one, namely, as education for students with special needs. One of the reasons for this understanding is due to the expansion of projects in this field over the past few years, which spread this perception in the public sphere. Generally, teachers perceive the concept of education for students with special needs on a very superficial level, as a concern meant to bring children with disabilities to school. Awareness of the essential demands and responsibilities related to inclusive education is at a very unsatisfactory level. This situation particularly concerns teachers from remote schools and schools in rural areas. An illustration of this statement is given by the following responses of teachers when asked to identify inclusive education: "...it is education for the improvement of teaching methods in subjects we are teaching" (teacher, female, school: Bratstvo-Skopje), or misunderstanding: "that is education for teachers in those contents and themes which we didn't have in the time of our studies" (teacher, male, Debar).

The philosophy of inclusiveness is not well disseminated through the process of teachers' preparation for educational practice and consequently is not adequately understood. Hence, it cannot be expected for teachers to implement the essential demands of inclusiveness when they are not aware of them, and when they are not aware that those demands are their responsibility. This situation urges action and changes in the teaching practice. Also, teacher-participants perceive their initial preparation for teaching practice as inadequate, stating that pre-service education gives them only general knowledge about subject matter. Teachers are actually developing their competence more or less independently in the course of their work experience. Responses from most of the participants did not reflect much of the referred to set of teacher competencies for effective teaching practice, especially in the context of social and cultural diversity.

Speaking in this context, we could also question the perception of future teachers on their preparation for practicing inclusive education. Student teachers expressed views of pre-service training similar to those of teachers and teacher educators. Namely, observing that the curricula are focused on subject-related information, student teachers noted that their studies do not efficiently develop knowledge, skills, and dispositions for inclusive education. They also emphasize insufficient teaching practices and teaching experiences during the initial preparation. The existing model of higher education gives all of the students an equivalent curricula regardless of their personal aim, namely to study for a scientific profile, or for a future teacher. So, most of the students during their period of study do not even perceive themselves as future teachers. It is not surprising knowing that many of them do not really intend to be a teacher, when the study system is not organized to develop or stimulate that kind of outcome. Consequently, if they do not perceive themselves as future teachers, they can hardly be aware of teaching issues, or give them adequate attention. As a result, often when starting the teaching practice, teachers are not mentally prepared for the role and responsibilities of a teacher. Their real preparation actually starts in those same moments of probation, based on personal experience and sensibility. In addition, there are no requirements related to teacher training in inclusive education, or to the hiring procedures of teachers and in-school professional staff.

Competencies needed for inclusive education

Participants, when asked to discuss required knowledge, skills, and attitudes used in practicing inclusive education, did not mention many important competencies: maintaining high expectations for student achievement regardless of their background; guiding and supporting all learners; recognizing how teachers' assumptions influence their teaching and relationships with different students; recognizing that knowledge is value-laden, constructed by the learner, and reciprocal; effective cooperation with in-school professional staff; or understanding the social and cultural dimensions of education (8) (appendix E).

Nevertheless, teachers' views differ about the possession of those competencies. Some teachers are confident that they possess and consistently apply them in their work, although practice shows differently. Others were more self-critical: "I do not feel competent and able to work with students with special needs, nor with those that have special educational demands/needs" (teacher, female, school: G. Delchev-Skopje), "We are working with so many students, and every one of them needs a different approach ...which I couldn't achieve" (teacher, female, school: G. Delchev-Skopje).

Considering the poor understanding of the philosophy of inclusive education, misunderstanding of many relevant competencies can be expected. Teaching practice in Macedonia remains structured around teaching the average student/pupil. As an example, although most of the teachers perceive themselves as competent to individualize the teaching strategies to meet each student's needs, and to use various forms of assessment to help students learn, their explanations of how they implement this show that they actually only lower assessment criteria, rather than adapting their approach. As a consequence, many students with special educational needs are actually advanced through the grades until they reach a level when they critically lack the knowledge and skills needed to continue. They then become frustrated, and feelings of inadequacy jeopardize their self-esteem and selfconfidence. This is also frustrating for teachers, who are faced with an with insoluble problem: "What can I do when I get a student in fifth grade who doesn't know to read and write? Teachers in lower primary classes pass her/him through grades because of compassion, but how can I teach her/him together with 30 other fifth graders?" (teacher, female, school: Bratstvo- Skopje). Thus, as one teacher (male, school: Bratstvo -Skopje) put it, "Teachers are not involved enough with all students. Maybe because of the organization of the education system itself, we teachers are marginalized; we are not paid enough to have the will to work more with all students. Otherwise, every teacher could be more engaged with those students who need it."

The situation is similar when analyzing other important competencies for inclusive education. Namely, teachers generally perceive themselves as believing in the educability of every child/student and perceive themselves as able to maintain high expectations about children regardless of their background. But, when explaining how these attitudes are implemented in practice, such a statement is often heard: "We have high expectations of them, but of course, those expectations are in the span of their possibilities" (teacher, male, Debar). It means that many teachers use the prior approach to students, with prejudice of their capabilities and potentials! This is a strong prejudice which influences the whole teaching practice. Many teachers assume it is predetermined that children with disabilities and special needs have limited capacities. This assumption is absurd because they couldn't know and value those capacities. Consequently, teachers perceive their role to accept those children in the classroom mainly for humane reasons.

The importance of those prejudices' influence and the finding that teachers and in-school professional staff are not adequately prepared for inclusive education could be better apprehended through analyzing the competencies narrowly related to the field of special needs. An example of the competencies is to recognize children's special needs and to provide or seek help for them. Faced with this demand and the responsibility to attain it, most of the teachers said that they are not educated and trained to work with children of special needs, claiming that they are not responsible for the success of the education of those students, "We don't get information though the enrolment procedure and nobody warns us that a particular student has special needs, so we are put in a situation to discover that through our work. But, parents should warn us" (teacher, female, school: G. Delchev-Skopje). The assumption that they should be warned if such students enroll in the class illustrates how they are actually prepared to face differences and to encourage maximum performance from every student (regardless of abilities, traits, or social and cultural background), and shows the absence of awareness that they (teachers and inschool professional staff) are responsible for the education of all children. As an illustration: "I also have that kind of pupil in the class, and it disturbs us in teaching and learning. I'm really sorry for that student, but the director/principal should solve this problem" (teacher, female, school: Bratstvo-Skopje). "Those students are aggressive and they disturb the other students. I had one in my class, but fortunately that family moved" (teacher, male, school: Bratstvo- Skopje).

The role of teachers and in-school professional staff

Responses from the participants show incongruence between the philosophy and demands of inclusive education and the way teachers and in-school professional staff perceive and understand their role and responsibilities. Despite all of their honest, hard efforts, it could be concluded that educational practice is not really inclusive and efficient. Increased training and raised awareness in inclusive education are needed, resulting in a change in the role of teachers and in-school professional staff, as well as acceptance for responsibilities related to the teaching practice. Analysis of the perception of cooperation between teachers and in-school professional staff shows that most of respondents perceive it as very efficient. In practice, this cooperation is based on methods contradictory to the demands of inclusiveness. Namely, when teachers come to the conclusion that they have a problem with a student, the student in question is sent out of the classroom (to the pedagogue or psychologist) for the supposed benefit of both the student and the students left in the classroom. Then, working with this child (usually in separate offices), the professional staff conduct an assessment of the child, and tries to "correct" the problem by giving suggestions to the teacher as to how to treat the student. Although it is done with the best of intentions, this kind of treatment and physical separation of students with special needs reinforces their exclusion and stereotypes about them. Most students experience these kinds of sessions with the professional staff as punishment or labeling that actually results in continued stigmatization. This way of practice also reinforces the stereotypes about the role of the professional staff. Situations in which children receive assistance by the professional staff are very stressful for the parents too, who experience it as a warning that something is wrong with their child. It influences how inschool professional staff, especially psychologists, are perceived by teachers, students, and parents, "We don't have support from the parents themselves. They don't want to tell us that their child is different. We must realize that on our own, and send them to the professional staff. But, after that, the student will speak about it at home, and the parents will come here with severe accusations, saying that we teachers are not in the position to decide to ask help from a psychologist for their child (because according to them, their child is not a case for a psychologist)" (teacher, male, school: G. Delchev-Skopje). This kind of perception reinforces the attitudes in teachers that the only appropriate place for many students with special needs is in a specialized institution.

Conclusion

The practice of inclusive education in Macedonia does not meet the satisfactory standards developed and accepted in the wider community. To ensure support for teachers and students, the role and tasks of in-school professional staff should be redefined in a way that provides for their presence, availability, and active participation in classroom teaching. By bringing psychologists, special educators, and pedagogues closer to all children, barriers between children and professional staff can be expected to diminish with the effectiveness of professional staff's work increasing accordingly.

An efficient and systematic approach to issues of inclusion at all levels of the educational process should be established. Inclusion should be one of the basic dimensions of education, in much the same way as humanity or human rights. For this purpose, a higher level of both understanding and cooperation is needed among policy makers and universities.

Acknowledgements to Safet Ballazhy and Eben Friedman, members of the experts team for realization of study Mapping policies and practices for the preparation of teachers for inclusive education in contexts of social and cultural diversity, conducted by European Training Foundation (The Agency of European Union), in cooperation with Center for Educational Policies - Belgrade and SCIENTER-Torino. This paper is partly based on the activities in the frame of this study.

References

... / References

1. The Salamanca Statement And Framework For Action On Special Needs Education. World Conference On Special Needs Education. UNESCO; 1994.

2. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Nacionalna programa za razvoj na obrazovanieto vo Republika Makedonija 2005-2015. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija; 2004.

3. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Koncepcija za devetgodishno osnovno vospitanie i obrazovanie. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija; 2007.

4. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Nacionalna strategija za deinstitucionalizacija vo sistemot na socijalnata zashtita vo Republika Makedonija 2008-2018. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija; 2007.

5. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Early Learning and Development Standards for Children from 0-6 Years. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija; 2009.

6. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Zakon za izmenuvanje i dopolnuvanje na Zakonot za srednoto obrazovanie. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija No. 92; 2008.

7. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie i nauka, Zakon za osnovnoto obrazovanie. Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija No. 103. Skopje: Sluzhben vesnik na Republika Makedonija; 2008.

8. Pantikj N, (editor). Tuning Teacher Education Curricula in the Western Balkans. Belgrade: Centre for Education Policy; 2008.

Appendix

APPENDIX A

Focus groups with teachers

1: To gain insights into teachers' understanding of competences needed for inclusive education:

An instrument developed (table of competencies for inclusion) is used for this purpose followed by the questions about:

* what kind of things does an inclusive teacher do in and out of the classroom? (e.g. peer-grouping, prolonged interactions with children with learning difficulties, making connections the learners' experiences and prior understandings, interactions with families and communities, etc.)

2: Teachers' own evaluation of the effectiveness of pre-service teacher preparation for inclusive practices in education:

* which of the competencies do they think they have and which ones do they feel they could further develop?

* to what extent did their pre-service preparation help them develop those competencies?

* how could the pre-service preparation of the future teachers be improved to better help them develop those competencies?

3: To gain insights into teachers' own evaluation of the effectiveness of in-service teacher preparation for inclusive practices in education, by asking:

* to what extent did the in-service programs they attended help them develop the competencies (from the table of comps) and which ones?

4: To collect information about any other forms of in-service development that exists in the region, by asking:

* what other practices have been useful to teachers' professional and personal development? (e.g. if the teachers have such a thing as a professional development review or an interview with a school manager in which issues such as the teacher's training wishes and needs are discussed), or

* what would motivate them to develop competencies for inclusion and participate in relevant practices

5: To follow up on information about particular practices identified during the desk research, which might stand as examples of the best practice. Additional questions could be asked for this purpose, such as:

* which programs and other practices were particularly helpful for the development of competencies for inclusion and why?

* how could the in-service practices of teacher development be improved to better help teachers develop those competencies?

APPENDIX B

Interviews with pre-service teacher educators

1: To explore in more depth their perceptions of the extent to which the inputs and processes of the current pre-service preparation of teachers help them prepare for inclusive education. The questions may include:

* which components of the programme help student teachers develop knowledge, skills and dispositions for inclusive education?

* what do you think are the main barriers for preparation of future teachers for inclusion?

* how could initial teacher preparation be improved to better help students develop competence for inclusion?

2: To follow up on some of the issues that might serve as a best practice example. For example, this may involve:

* what do you think, are any particular groups of people barred from qualifying as teachers or have to pass through different additional entry systems (e.g. teachers who have disabilities)?

* What do you think about practice of introducing quotas for some vulnerable groups?

* What could be the benefit of stimulating members of vulnerable groups (e.g. people with disabilities, or people who speak language which is not the major in the country) to become teachers?

3: To follow up on information about a particular course in the field of inclusive education:

* Taking the pre-service teacher education programmes on which you are directly involved, in what ways do you think they contribute towards the preparation for teachers for inclusive education?

* Content for inclusive education (e.g. social inclusion; social justice, gender equality, sexual orientation, etc.)? Do programs according to which you are working content such topics and issues? Which ones?

* Pedagogies for inclusive education (e.g. child-centred learning; interactive learning; collaborative learning; other etc.). Which of them exist in your programs of work?

* Practical experiences for inclusive education (e.g. observing qualified teachers; observing fellow students teaching; other etc.). Which of them exist in your programs of work?

APPENDIX C

Interviews with in-service teacher educators and trainers

The objectives of interviews with the in-service teacher educators and trainers are:

1: To explore the issues involved with the continual professional development of teachers aiming at improving teachers' competencies for inclusive practices in education. The questions may include:

* Which in-service practices help teachers develop knowledge, skills and dispositions for inclusive education?

* What do you think are the main barriers for development of teachers' competence for inclusion?

* How could those practices be improved to better help students develop competence for inclusion?

2: To explore to what extent different projects involving teachers' continual professional development aim at improving teachers' competencies for inclusive practices in education. The questions may involve:

* what services/support have they offered in terms of in-service teacher development for inclusive education

* what do they think are the main barriers for a more systematic in-service development of teachers' competence for inclusion?

3: non-formal modes of professional development.

* Do you know about some non-formal modes of professional development? If there are direct or indirect ways of accrediting these?

4: To follow up on information about a particular practice that could serve as a best practice example.

* Do you have information or experiences about some in-service practices which could serve as examples of good practice?

APPENDIX D

Interviews with student teachers

The objectives of interviews with the student teachers are:

1: To explore in more depth their perceptions of the extent to which the inputs and processes of the current pre-service preparation of teachers help them prepare for inclusive education. The questions may include:

* Which components of the program help student teachers develop knowledge, skills and dispositions for inclusive education?

* What do you think are the main barriers for preparation of future teachers for inclusion?

* How could initial teacher preparation be improved to better help students develop competence for inclusion?

2: Questions regarding positive practices:

* what do you think, are any particular groups of people barred from qualifying as teachers or have to pass through different additional entry systems (e.g. teachers who have disabilities)?

* What do you think about practice of introducing quotas for some vulnerable groups?

* What could be the benefit of stimulating members of vulnerable groups (e.g. people with disabilities, or people who speak language which is not the major in the country) to become teachers?

3: Questions about particular courses in a context of inclusive education

* Taking the pre-service teacher education programmes on which you are directly involved, in what ways do you think they contribute towards the preparation for teachers for inclusive education?

* Content for inclusive education (e.g. social inclusion; social justice; intercultural education; gender equality and sexual orientation; equality; others etc.)? Do you have contents like these ones? Which ones?

* Pedagogies for inclusive education (e.g. child-centred learning; interactive learning; collaborative learning; other etc.)? Which ones are present in your studies?

* Practical experiences for inclusive education (e.g. observing qualified teachers; observing fellow students teaching; other etc.)?

APPENDIX E

Table of competencies1

Improve competences of all students

Tailor teaching strategies to each child's needs

Use various forms of assessment to help children learn and improve instruction

Work effectively with support staff

Adapt curricula to particular pupils

Guide and support all learners

Attend to students' cognitive development, and to their socialemotional and moral growth

Connect with students and their families at an interpersonal level

Recognise and respect cultural and individual differences

Understand different values students and their families hold

Be aware of her own preconceptions and value stances

Recognise how her assumptions influence her teaching and relationships with different pupils

Recognise that knowledge is value-laden, constructed by the learner and reciprocal

Be able to recognise pupils' special needs and provide for them or seek help

Be able to recognise gifted pupils' needs and provide appropriately for these

Encourage intercultural respect and understanding among pupils

Maintain high expectations regardless of students' background

Treat all children with respect, affirms their worth and dignity

Believe in educability of every child

Help all children develop into fully participating members of society

Understand the factors that create cohesion and exclusion in society

Understand the social and cultural dimensions of education

Understand the contribution of education to developing cohesive societies

Be familiar with conventions of the right of child and antidiscrimination

1 ... Tuning Teacher Education in the Western Balkans, ... Common European Principles for Teachers' Competencies and Qualifications ... Improving Competencies for the 21st Century.

Developed using Tuning Teacher Education in the Western Balkans, European documents such as Common European Principles for Teachers' Competencies and Qualifications and Improving Competencies for the 21st Century.