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ABSTRACT
This work addresses bell hooks's call for the development of an alternative to patriarchal masculinity which she calls feminist masculinity. Patriarchal masculinity has convinced most men and women that the development of different forms of masculinity goes against our biological nature. Yet there exists a history of men's experiences that contradicts this perspective and amounts to, I argue, men's feminist history. In particular I argue that the life and work of French philosophe Condorcet constitutes a historical cornerstone for feminist masculinity. An important implication of this work is the understanding that gender dissolution is not the only strategy capable of rectifying gender inequality. Siding with a range of feminist perspectives, from ecofeminism and Black feminism, I contend that we can accomplish much through a critical reconstruction of men and masculinity, including the reevaluation of historic figures such as Condorcet.
KEYWORDS NICOLAS DE CONDORCET (1743-1794), FEMINIST MASCULINITY, WOMEN'S RIGHTS, ENLIGHTENMENT
In her work, Feminism is for Everybody, bell hooks writes that men need a "vision of masculinity where self-esteem and self-love of one's unique being forms the basis of identity" (2000, p. 70). Today, the dominant form of masculinity is formed in opposition to femininity (Adams & Coltrane, 2005), valorizes "acts and attitudes of independence, aggression, and sexuality" (Reed, 2005, p. 232), and "teaches men that [men's] sense of self and identity, their reason for being, resides in their capacity to dominate others" (hooks, 2000, p. 70). This patriarchal masculine identity promotes the domination "of the planet, of less powerful men, of women and children" (hooks, 2000, p. 70). To counteract this form of masculinity, hooks calls for the development of an identity which does not insist that men retreat from their maleness in order to become compassionate, humane, loving people. She calls for the development of a vision of "feniinist masculinity" in order to challenge male domination of the planet, less powerful men, women, and children. Yet hooks laments that such a "vision has yet to be made fully clear by feminist thinkers male or female" (2000, p. 70).
In response, below I make the case for the critical reclamation of masculinity by examining a marginalized model in history. Specifically, I assess the life and work of French philosophe Condorcet as a historic...