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Introduction
Crises in the business world can be described as difficult battles ([88] Tsang, 2000) in the war for survival ([81] Snyder et al. , 2006). Therefore, when a product-harm crisis hits a business, managers should identify potential allies and rivals among their stakeholder groups, including consumers, regulatory agencies, media, and competitors.
Product-harm crises can result in serious losses and damages, such as injuries to consumers ([65] Papadakis, 2006), a destroyed public image and reputation ([60] Mowen, 1980; [75] Siomkos, 1999; [10] Berman, 1999; [18] Davies et al. , 2003), and a lack of consumer confidence in the affected company ([21] Dawar and Pillutla, 2000; [20] Dawar and Lei, 2008). Existing alliances are shifting, for example, as affected consumers or government agencies pursue legal cases against the company, while loyal customers seem to lose their trust ([75] Siomkos, 1999). Moreover, the performance of the defective product becomes problematic due to the unwillingness of consumers to buy the affected brand as expressed through negative purchase intentions ([68] Pruitt and Peterson, 1986; [77] Siomkos and Kurzbard, 1994; [88] Tsang, 2000; [51] Laufer and Gillespie, 2004) and a shift to competitor brands ([13] Cleeren et al. , 2006), which in turn causes serious drops in the affected company sales and major decreases in stock prices ([68] Pruitt and Peterson, 1986; [77] Siomkos and Kurzbard, 1994). The affected company's marketing weapons become ineffective, and its competitiveness decreases ([55] Lock, 2008). Negative information is disseminated by consumers ([21] Dawar and Pillutla, 2000; [37] Ingram et al. , 2005), and the media is recognised as a non-trustworthy ally due to their tendency to provide inaccurate facts and to sensationalise stories ([24] Eagle et al. , 2005).
Interestingly, during the product-harm crisis, rivals become more aggressive ([88] Tsang, 2000). Competitors interfere and weaken the affected product by enhancing their advertising activities or reducing prices ([13] Cleeren et al. , 2006) to benefit from the opportunity to take greater market share ([88] Tsang, 2000; [33] Heerde et al. , 2005). Indeed, competitive efforts in times of a product-harm crisis may be more effective ([82] Steenkamp et al. , 2005). An increase in consumer knowledge and awareness of competitor products can also be achieved ([19] Dawar, 1998). The battle that starts with a...