Military Culture in Imperial China

Abstract

[...]while some regard the study of military history as an archaic tradition dominated by a "swords and saddles" approach, this volume reveals the broad research agendas of the contributors, whose studies of China's military tradition touch on literature, economics, politics, foreign relations, religion, and the law. According to Graff, the pervasive emphasis in Tang sources on the intellectual capabilities of the commander, rather than the technical details of combat, reflects in part the weight of literary tradition in China, but also the Confucian preference for the intellectual and abstract over the specialized skills of the military men. [...]in her chapter, "Wen and Wu in Elite Cultural Practices during the Late Ming," Kathleen Ryor demonstrates the fluid nature of the boundaries between military and civil cultures during the late imperial period.

Military Culture in Imperial China. Edited by nicola di cosmo. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009. 456 pp. $45.00 (cloth).

Like many edited volumes, this book has its origins in an academic conference. In 2001 a group of scholars specializing in Chinese mili- tary history convened at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, and offered their views on the topic "Military Culture in Chinese History." The conference produced papers dealing with many aspects of Chinese military culture, fourteen of which appear as chapters in this book. In his introduction, Nicola Di Cosmo provides a multifaceted definition of "military culture," which can include the system of conduct and behavior that regulated the actions of members of the military, the cultural forces that shaped strategic decision making of both civil and military elites, the values and traditions that determined a society's willingness to engage in war, and the presence of a literary or aesthetic tradition that deals with military events and personalities. In short, the essays, which range chronologically from the Zhou to the Qing, explore the manner in which the wu (military) has influenced the wen (civil) in Chinese history, and vice versa.

The efforts of the editor and the contributors are successful for multiple reasons. First, several of the chapters shed important light on the issue of Chinese military history and culture, in particular by breaking down traditional barriers between the cultures of China's civil and military elites. Second, each author carefully links his or her research to the editor's introduction and the major themes of the work. This reflects an excellent job of editing and lends this collection of essays a coherence and continuity that is sometimes lacking in edited volumes. Third, while some regard the study of military history as an archaic tradition dominated by a "swords and saddles" approach, this volume reveals the broad research agendas of the contributors, whose studies of China's military tradition touch on literature, economics, politics, foreign relations, religion, and the law.

A few examples will suffice to demonstrate the skillful and diverse manner in which the authors explore these definitions of military culture. In his chapter "Law and the Military in Early China," Robin D. S. Yates examines the close connection between the military and the development of civil law in China. Indeed, military officials typically meted out punishment to civilian transgressors as the military doubled as a police force. Dating back to the Warring States era, intellectuals and officials borrowed methods designed to promote military discipline and order among the increasingly large military units of the time and applied them to the growing populations of their states. The Legalists who built the powerful Qin state, which would unify China in 221 b.c., borrowed heavily from the military when devising methods to control the population at large. Well-known systems of collective responsibility and mutual protection, such as Lianzuo and Baojia, had their origins in military law. A period of important change on many fronts, the Warring States era saw the expansion of military law into the realm of the administrative law of civil officials. Yates sees strong continuity throughout imperial China, with military law deeply embedded in civil law all the way through the Qing.

David A. Graff 's contribution, "Narrative Maneuvers: The Representation of Battle in Tang Historical Writing," takes a different approach by analyzing Tang dynasty texts in order to understand the attitudes of the men who wrote these histories. Sifting through battle descriptions from a variety of literary sources, Graff determines that the authors of these works, Confucian scholars with no military experience, showed scant interest in tactics, weapons, formations, or the experiences of the soldiers. Instead, they extolled the intelligence of the victorious commanders and attributed their success to cunning, craftiness, and ability to outsmart the enemy. According to Graff, the pervasive emphasis in Tang sources on the intellectual capabilities of the commander, rather than the technical details of combat, reflects in part the weight of literary tradition in China, but also the Confucian preference for the intellectual and abstract over the specialized skills of the military men. From the perspective of these historian-officials, a scholarly mind is most decisive in determining the outcome of battle.

Finally, in her chapter, "Wen and Wu in Elite Cultural Practices during the Late Ming," Kathleen Ryor demonstrates the fluid nature of the boundaries between military and civil cultures during the late imperial period. Some of the most famous military elites of the Ming, such as General Ji Qiguang, formed lasting relationships with civil officials and embraced cultural pursuits typically associated with China's civil elites, such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry. At the same time, civil elites showed a fascination with aspects of military culture such as swords, which many collected, and swordsmanship, which featured prominently in popular fiction of the time.

Readers interested in Chinese military history will clearly find this book of value, yet it should also appeal to China specialists in general and military historians of other regions and cultures. The essays are largely confined to China and its immediate Inner Asian neighbors, but they serve as a starting point for comparison and broader inquiries into the issue of military culture.