ADULT EDUCATION IN CHINA 1978-2008: AN ANALYTICAL REVIEW ON THE INFLUENCE OF NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL POLICIES

Abstract

The values that undergird educational policy are the values imparted upon society. [...] the century-old question has returned for us to critically ponder: 'What are the purposes of education?' Third, the Chinese government has proposed to build a socialist harmonious society in the 21st century, realising and acknowledging that education is not only for the purpose of earning money but more importantly for improving life and well-being.

Headnote

Abstract

Through an overview and analysis of the major national education and adult education policies, this paper endeavours to present the driving forces of the development of contemporary Chinese adult education, to identify and examine the highlights of current practices, and to discuss future developments. Questions for exploring and informing the study include:

(a) What are some of the driving forces for the development of Chinese adult education?

(b) What are some of highlights of Chinese adult education?

(c) What is the future of Chinese adult education?

Contemporary Chinese national education and adult education policies and regulations relevant to Chinese adult education are reviewed and examined to help answer these questions and portray a picture of contemporary Chinese adult education.

EDUCACIÓN DE PERSONAS ADULTAS EN CHINA 19782008: UN ESTUDIO ANALÍTICO SOBRE LA INFLUENCIA DE POLÍTICAS EDUCATIVAS NACIONALES

Resumen

A través de una visión general y un análisis de las principales políticas educativas nacionales y de educación de personas adultas, este trabajo intenta presentar las fuerzas motrices del desarrollo de Ia educación contemporánea china de personas adultas, para identificar y examinarlos puntos centrales de las prácticas actuales y discutir desarrollos futuros. Entre las preguntas que se plantean para explorar e informar el estudio se encuentran:

(a) ¿Cuáles son algunas de las fuerzas motrices para el desarrollo de Ia educación de personas adultas en China?

(b) ¿Cuáles son algunos de los puntos centrales de Ia educación de personas adultas en China?

(c) ¿ Cuáles son ios desarrollos futuros para Ia educación de personas adultas en China?

Las políticas educativas nacionales y de educación de personas adultas contemporáneas chinas y las políticas y reglamentaciones pertinentes para Ia educación de personas adultas en China son revisadas y analizadas para ayudar a responder a estas preguntas y dibujar un retrato de Ia práctica contemporánea de Ia educación de personas adultas en China.

(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)

Traducido por: Magdalena Padrón

Introduction

The development of a nation's education is strongly influenced by its political, social, and economic developments and transformations; so is its adult education. In return, the enhancement of education and adult education contributes to national improvement. Thus, national policies and educational policies significantly influence the practices of education at all levels. This has been evident in the development of Chinese adult education. During the past three decades, the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Chinese government have carried out numerous critical policies that have led to the reform of the Chinese administrative systems in which political, economic, and educational structures have been vigorously reformed (Wu, 1994). Accordingly, the State Council and other administrative agencies have issued, approved, and promoted various policies, decisions, and suggestions on education in general and adult education in particular (Zhang and Zhang, 1996). Amongst them several policies serve as milestones that have critically deepened the reform and directed the practice of Chinese adult education. Consequently Chinese adult education has been enormously developed which has also contributed greatly to social, political, economic, and cultural constructions (Zhang and Zhang, 1996).

First a synopsis of the national reform and development phases is provided. Then some influential policies on Chinese education in general and Chinese adult education in particular are presented in relation to the development of Chinese adult education at each phase. Finally in reflection on these policies the paper concludes by discussing the following questions:

(a) What are some of the driving forces for the development of Chinese adult education?

(b) What are some of highlights of Chinese adult education?

(c) What is the future of Chinese adult education?

An overview of national reform and development

Administrators and scholars have divided the development of Chinese adult education into several phases, classified by the time of the national reform and development and some milestone policies on education and adult education issues (see Zhang and Zhang, 1996; Gao and Jia, 2007). The three main phases that best reflect the stages of national reform and development and their influences on education and adult education in China are summarised. Also, some of the major policies that guide and direct adult education practice are examined and what has highlighted its development in each phase. The phases are demarcated as follows:

* Restoration and reform (1978-1992)

* Deepening reform and promoting development (1992-2002)

* Establishing the system (2002-present)

1978-1992 was the period of reform and opening toward the outside world. The national focus was to establish goals and move forward towards the construction of the Tour modernisations' (Sun, 2007). The Communist leader Deng Xiaoping pointed out that in realising the 'four modernisations/ science and technology were imperative. For these, education laid the foundation (Ministry of Education, 1993). Education should serve the socialist modern constructions, and it must suit the needs of national development (Liu and Jin, 1995). Therefore, the promotion of education became a priority. The important roles that adult education played in the national constructions also gained greater attention from the CPC and the Chinese government. Chinese adult education thus became an important arena for policymaking at national levels (Zhang and Zhang, 1996). In this phase adult education was dynamically applied in order to improve people's education at various levels and provide the knowledge and skills needed for their jobs. Literacy programmes, peasants' education, workers' education, and on-the-jobtraining were prioritised and offered via existing educational resources, such as correspondence and evening schools, workers' colleges, and national and local broadcasting and national and local universities (Sun, 2006).

Deng Xiaoping 's visit to the south part of China in 1992 marked the new era and the deepening of reform and further development of the Chinese economy (Liu and Jin, 1995; Zhang and Zhang, 1996). Starting in 1993, pilot experiments of 6 Economic Special Zones' were initiated in some cities and regions located mostly in the southern part and coastal areas of China. These cities and regions moved from a planned economy to a free market economy. In 1997 the 15th Chinese Communist Party National Congress declared Deng Xiaoping' s theory the guiding ideology and aimed, ' to promote fundamental changes of economic system and the economic growth modes and establish a fairly complete socialist market economy. '(Qin, 1998, p. 54). China went further with its economic reform proceeding to adjust its policies on education and on adult education as well. It was perceived that education must meet the needs of the new economic system serving economic development; it must prepare China for interaction with the world, and it must envision future needs. Vigorously developing onthe-job-training and continuing education was strongly emphasised. Updating knowledge and skills for jobs was given special attention. Establishing a national system and improving on-the -job-training and certification and assessment systems became the focus for new developments in education (Ministry of Education, 1993).

Since the turn of the century China has entered a new stage of development for building a prosperous society in a comprehensive way and accelerating socialist modernisation (Sun, 2006). In 2002 the 16th CPC National Congress declared new goals and strategies for a successful society. The CPC set new objectives for development and worked out a programme of action at the new stage in the new century, which necessitates changes in the relevant parts of the Party Constitution (Xinhua News Agency). In 2006, the Sixth Central CPC Committee Meeting of the 16th CPC made a 'Decision of Establishing a Socialist Harmonious Society,' in which valuing human beings and recognising their needs are deemed as the core and root. Serving the people is thus marked as essential. Establishing a modern education system to provide more educational opportunities for the people became the new focus and has been promoted by the Chinese government (Sun, 2006). Adult education was seen as occupying a unique position in helping establish a lifelong education system and building a 'learning society.'

Review of major influential educational policies

As seen above each stage has its own focus for national development, yet continuous development is also displayed. In the next section some education and adult education policies, decisions, and regulations will be reviewed and discussed. How these have influenced adult education practice and promoted its development, and what was highlighted in each stage will be examined.

Stage of restoration and reform (1978-1992)

Since the 1979 policies of reform and opening toward the outside, China has entered a new phase in its history. Education has been generally viewed and used as an effective instrument to help rebuild the nation. Chinese adult education was assigned new roles and responsibilities for the new era of the Chinese socialist constructions (Zhang and Zhang, 1996). To facilitate and promote these new roles and responsibilities, the Central Chinese Communist Party and the Chinese government have issued policies, decisions, and regulations regarding primary roles, functions, and practices of adult education (Zhang and Zhang, 1996). Some of these pivotal points are noted below.

In May 1980, at its Education Meeting, the Secretary General Office of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party pointed out that if workers and peasants were not well educated the modernisations of industry and agriculture would not likely be realised. They then suggested that workers' and peasants' education should be given high priority in the educational system.

On September 5, 1980, the State Council approved and forwarded the Ministry of Education's 'Proposal on Highly Developing Higher Education Institutions' Correspondence and Evening Schools' that offered educational opportunities in a timely manner to help meet young workers' and high school graduates' needs for receiving higher education.

In February 1981, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council jointly issued its 'Decision on Strengthening Workers/ Employees' Training and Education,' confirming that they were the driving forces for modernisations: thus workers needed to be well educated and trained.

In September 1982, the second part of the conference report of the 12th national conference of the Chinese Communist Party stated that the government must popularise primary education, and strengthen middle school, vocational and higher education. There was a need to develop cadres' education, workers' education, peasants' education, literacy, and various kinds of learning activities for both urban and rural citizens. Also, the nation should train all kinds of special personnel together to improve the whole nation's educational level for Chinese socioeconomic development.

In 1983, the Central Office of the State Council accepted and forwarded the 'Proposal submitted by the Ministry of Education on Policies for Resolving Issues of Workers' University, Part-Time College, and Graduates from Correspondence and Evening Schools of Higher Education Institutions.' The policy permitted ' three equalities,' which meant that graduates from adult higher education institutions and correspondence and evening schools of traditional higher education institutions should be treated equally; their degrees should be equally valued; and they should have equal opportunities for employment and promotion. This policy significantly influenced adult higher education and strongly motivated in-service people to participate in adult education programmes part time.

On May 27, 1985, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a 'Decision on the Reform of Education Structure,' which stated that education for cadres, workers, and peasants, and educational programmes via broadcasting and TV delivery were important components of the Chinese educational enterprise. This policy became a guideline for deepening adult education reform at the time.

In December 1986, in order to carry out the 'Decision on the Reform of Education Structure,' the national adult education working conference was jointly held by the National Education Commission (NEC, now called the Ministry of Education), National Planning Commission, National Economy Commission, the Ministry of Labour and Personnel, and the Ministry of Organisation. During the working conference, a ' Decision on the Reform and Development of Adult Education' was discussed and prepared for submission to the State Council.

On June 23, 1987, the 'Decision on the Reform and Development of Adult Education' was approved and forwarded by the State Council to implement. This milestone policy acknowledged that adult education was necessary for social, economic, scientific, policy, and technological improvements. It addressed the important roles and functions adult education played for improving peasants' educational levels and workers' job skills for economic efficiency. It provided a new strategic plan for adult education to further carry out in the constructions of the socialist materialism and cultural cultivation. It also required that the whole society should recognise the significance that adult education holds for the socialist modernisations and constructions.

The decision concluded and refined the responsibilities, major goals, and functions of adult education in which five areas were identified, with pre-service and on-the-job training listed at the beginning:

1) To provide education and training of cultural knowledge, professional skills and practical ability for those who have become parts of the work force or for those who may switch to new jobs, and those job-seekers who have not met job requirements.

2) To provide literacy for the illiterate.

3) To continuously provide basic or higher education for those who have left formal schools, taking their cultural basis and actual needs into consideration. Graduation Certificates are issued to those who are qualified.

4) To provide continuous education for those professional, technical, or management personnel who have received higher education, with the purpose of renewing and enriching their knowledge and enhancing their ability.

5) To conduct diversified education for social culture values such as elementary knowledge of law, healthcare for women and children, healthcare for senior citizens, family life, fine art/calligraphy, beauty care, cooking/nutrition, flower-planting, etc. ; to provide educational service for civilised, healthy, and scientific life-styles for the elderly, women, and all citizens (Ministry of Education, 2001, II).

This policy summarised previous reforms and their achievements for adult education practices, and provided a new direction for further reform and development. The Decision also 'confirmed the social role of adult education, aiming to improve the overall quality of the workforce, reinforcing the integration of learning with work and production, providing multiple formats of running adult education with flexible instruction, and a convenient delivery system, and improving teaching and learning quality' (Zhang and Zhang, 1996, p. 25).

During this stage the Chinese government actively sought various resources to provide learning opportunities for workers, peasants and cadres, and promoted the use of adult education to expand higher education in order to meet the nation's needs. Directed and guided by the above national educational and adult education policies, the practice of adult education focused on improving adults' cultural and educational levels for the national constructions, and advocated adult education as another 'leg' for national development (Deng, 1994). Thus, ' systemic pre-service and on-the-job training became the important task of adult education, in which ethical, cultural, specific, and technological knowledge and skills were all included. Worker, technicians, managers, and leaders at all levels received training of various kinds' (Sun, 2006, p. 11).

Stage of deepening reform and promoting development (1992-2002)

With continuous and supportive policies from the Chinese government administrators and adult education practitioners have worked hard together to carry out these policies and prepare for further development. The following points include some of the key policies of the period.

On January 7, 1993, the Central Office of the State Council accepted and forwarded the ' Suggestion by the NEC on Further Deepening the Reform and Promoting the Development of Adult Higher Education.' It pointed out that adult higher education, which offered education to those who work and were employed post high school, shouldered the important responsibilities in socialist constructions and effectively fulfilled tasks of the enhancement of production. This document not only guided the development of adult higher education but also led adult middle school education to further development.

In February 1993, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council officially published the Outline of Chinese Education Reform and Development. This document precisely stated, ' Adult education was also a continuing part of traditional educational system' (Ministry of Education, 1993, p. 9). It helped to extend education from traditional schooling to lifelong education/learning.

On July 3, 1994, the State Council issued the 'Suggestions of the State Council on the Implementation of the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China.' This milestone policy stated that adult education, as a part of national educational system, needed to develop and form a system that consisted of primary, middle, and higher adult and vocational education and complement a general education. It also emphasised that literacy, on-jobtraining and adult degrees, and continuing education should continually be given priority (Ministry of Education, 1994).

In March 1995, the Education Law of the People's Republic of China was passed at the Third Conference of the Eighth National Congress. Section 11 of chapter one of the law stated that in order to cope with the national economic and socialist development, to promote education, and to facilitate development of various kinds of education, a lifelong education system was to be established. Section 19 of chapter two required that the nation implement vocational and adult education systems (Ministry of Education, 1995). The development of various forms of adult education in areas such as politics, economy, culture, science and technology, and other professional fields, and lifelong learning and education for all citizens, was encouraged. The law indicated the establishment of the status of adult education in the national educational system and lifelong education system.

On December 24, 1998, The Ministry of Education announced its 'Education Promotion Action Plan for the 21st Century. '

On January 13, 1999, the above Action Plan was approved and forwarded by the State Council. This plan furthered the implementation of the Educational Law and the 'Outline of Chinese Educational Reform and Development.' It set up main goals to be realised by 2000 and 2010 (Ministry of Education, 2002). Regarding adult education it proposed that adult education should continue to focus on on-the-job training and continuing education via the following:

1) Establishing modern enterprises' educational system, licence and certificate system for certain professions.

2) Adopting various and apt forms to offer adult education and training programmes to meet the needs of trainees who were either laid off or transferred to other positions to help serve their reemployment.

3) Co-operating and coordinating among providers, enterprises, and government at all levels, developing the experiment of community education, and gradually establishing and completing a lifelong education system (Ministry of Education, 1998).

On June 13, 1999, the CPC and the State Council issued a 'Decision on Deepening Education Reform Fully Promote Character Education.' This decision called for all-round development, including the promotion of character education intended to educate people who not only have knowledge/degrees, but who also have ambition for future achievement, and who are moral and disciplined. Character education should be integrated into preschool, elementary and high school education, vocational education, adult education, and higher education (Ministry of Education, 1999). This decision paid timely attention to other equally important dimensions of educating human beings, such as building character, for education should not be focused solely on promoting workforce and economic development.

The CPC and the Chinese government consistently emphasised and strengthened the vital roles and functions that adult education played in the Chinese modern constructions and highly praised and promoted the establishment of the adult education system. Strong efforts have been made to vigorously develop adult education. As a result, traditional ideas of one-time, formal schooling have become obsolete. Adult continuing education, lifelong education, and lifelong learning have become socially accepted and are considered to be essential and necessary conditions for socioeconomic development. Using various kinds of adult education, especially adult higher education, became a governmental task at all levels in order to improve people's educational levels, and to enhance the nation's levels of science, technology, and general morality.

Stage of establishing the system (2002-p resent)

Since 2002 the Central Communist Party Committee has been under the leadership of Hu Jintao. The 16th CPC National Congress declared new goals and strategies for a prosperous society in 2002 (CPC, 2002). China has continually improved its socioeconomic development and yet has added new areas to its focus in order to resolve emerging unbalanced development and social problems. Some of these additions are noted below.

In 2003, the third meeting of the 16th CPC National Congress made a 'Decision on Resolving Issues of the Socialist Free Market Economy.' Rapid economic development requires a better-educated workforce. In section 33 of the report the deepening of educational system reform was stressed, as well the establishment of a modern national and lifelong education system and building a learning society (CPC, 2003).

In 2004, the Ministry of Education issued its '2003-2007 Education Promotion Action Plan,' which aimed to carry out the 16th CCP National Congress's policy and to foster the operation of the 'Education Promotion Action Plan for the 21st Century,' issued in 1998. Regarding adult education it encouraged people to learn throughout life via various forms and multiple providers. It proposed to strengthen co-operation between school education and continuing education, and to deepen the reform of adult education. It aimed to establish broader areas and multiple levels of an educational training network, and to gradually build a system where individual learners initiate learning that was supported by their employers and subsidised by the government. It attempts to create a system that recognises credits from various kinds of training, including part time programmes, and allows for the accumulation and transfer of credits among programmes. The focus for adult education was to emphasise the learning of new knowledge and high technological training, to build learning organisations, learning enterprises, and learning communities, and to fully utilise and share various educational resources to create a public system of educational resources that are open to the learning and education of all citizens (Ministry of Education, 2004a).

In 2006, the Sixth Meeting of the Central Communist Committee at the 16th National Congress timely set up strategic goals, calling for the establishment of a socialist ' harmonious society,' in which valuing human beings and recognising their needs are deemed as the core - serving people is highly regarded as essential. Establishing a modern education system to provide more educational opportunities for people became the new focus (16th National Congress, 2006).

Building a socialist harmonious society became the top priority of the Party and the country (Sun, 2006). Again the government has emphasised and viewed adult education as an effective vehicle in helping to pursue lifelong education and building a learning society. To establish a socialist harmonious society the Chinese government believes that everyone should have opportunity to learn and learn lifelong via formal, informal, and non-formal educational systems, which will facilitate the building of a learning society. Adult education has and will continuously play vital roles in establishing a lifelong learning system for a learning society and to contribute to the building of a harmonious society.

Reflections and conclusion

During the past three decades, the Chinese government has made, proved, and forwarded more than ten laws regarding education. The Ministry of Education has made over 200 educational policies, decisions, regulations, and plans. Both have forcefully promoted the development of education of various kinds' (Ministry of Education, 2004b). Being a part of the four components of the Chinese education system (the other three are ' basic education,' ' middle vocational and technical education,' and 'traditional higher education'), Chinese adult education has also made prolonged achievements (see Ministry of Education, 2004b, for details).

As we review and reflect on these policies we can vividly visualise how they have authoritatively driven Chinese adult education to meet the nation's social and economic needs. Each stage described above presented us with unique national focuses for adult education and then displayed its highlights in educational activities.

Phase One emphasised adult education via literacy programmes, evening schools and part time programmes, and helped in educating and improving peasants' , workers' and the younger generation's level of education, knowledge, and skills.

In Phase Two, on-the-job training, vocation educational, and adult degree education were promoted in order to help meet the needs of the new reform toward a free market economy.

Starting in Phase Three, lifelong learning and building a learning society have been prioritised as the new tasks for adult education.

As we critically deliberate further on these noticeable shifts and developments, several points are worth our time and consideration, and will be briefly discussed here. First, we are reminded of Freiré' s statement that no education is neutral (Freiré, 1970). Evidently, China has been applying Marxism, Leninism and Maoist thoughts as conceptual frameworks in building a socialist country, and therefore these are certainly reflected in the nature of the educational policies, i.e. in that the purpose of education is to serve the super structures of the socialist government and society. This is the driving force for the development of adult education, a development that is in line with the needs of either political or socioeconomic developments of the nation. However what other underlying premises could serve as driving forces for educational development? What other areas and social dimensions have been overlooked?

Second, the call for character education is a sign that indicates the previous focus or driving forces for these developments need to be reconsidered, redirected or corrected. The reason simply is the all around quality of the 'products,' Sun (2007) points out:

The Chinese market-oriented economy on the one hand, has strongly facilitated the development of education. On the other hand it has also influenced educational purposes, methods, and content areas, particularly in the rapid progressing of globalisation, which requires a knowledge economy and flexible, skilled workforce. Therefore, learning activities and people's motivations for education and learning are directly situated within market relationships, which have changed people's perception of the value of education in a traditional sense. For instance, 'money is everything' is a mantra that has commonly become accepted by young generations, (p. 109)

Furthermore, many social issues have emerged and people's sense of morality is in crisis. For instance, some people have become wealthy by illegal means, and personal gain has become the sole interest among many, which has also engendered ethical and moral concerns. The values that undergird educational policy are the values imparted upon society. Thus the century-old question has returned for us to critically ponder: 'What are the purposes of education?'

Third, the Chinese government has proposed to build a socialist harmonious society in the 21st century, realising and acknowledging that education is not only for the purpose of earning money but more importantly for improving life and well-being. Learning should be lifelong and it should not be just for making a living; rather, it should help develop the true nature of human beings. In fact, as Confucius had suggested, a society should become a learning society where everyone learns and learning is lifelong (Sun, 2008). A learning society facilitates the establishment of a harmonious society.

To summarise the review: it is apparent that Chinese education and adult education policies have strongly influenced Chinese adult education practices. In each phase, certain policies highlighted its focus in terms of national reform and development, which served as driving forces for the reform and development of adult education. This model has been working well, yet it has caused other problems and social issues. Thus questions including purposes of education should be revisited. Optimistically we see the Chinese government making great efforts. China is moving forward toward building a harmonious society, and Chinese adult education facilitates this endeavour through developing learning communities, learning organisations and learning cities, and by building a lifelong learning system. It is imperative to undertake future research and observations in order to follow up on such topics.

Editorial assistance for this article was provided by Elizabeth May, doctoral student, University of Georgia Adult Education Programme, Athens, GA (USA).

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