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About the Authors:
Pierpaolo Aimola
Affiliations Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, United States of America, Department of Basic and Applied Biology, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
Marco Carmignani
Affiliation: Department of Basic and Applied Biology, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
Anna Rita Volpe
Affiliation: Department of Basic and Applied Biology, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
Altomare Di Benedetto
Affiliations Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, United States of America, Department of Basic and Applied Biology, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
Luigi Claudio
Affiliation: Department of Urology, National Cancer Institute “Fondazione Senatore Pascale”, Naples, Italy
Michael P. Waalkes
Affiliation: National Toxicology Program at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
Adrie van Bokhoven
Affiliation: Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
Erik J. Tokar
Affiliation: National Toxicology Program at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
Pier Paolo Claudio
* E-mail: [email protected]
Affiliations Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, United States of America, Department of Surgery, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, United States of America
Introduction
Prostate cancer is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans. With an estimated 240,890 new cases, (accounting for 29% of all expected male cancers) and 33,720 deaths (11% of total deaths caused by cancer in men) in 2011 in the USA, it is currently the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in American men [1]. In spite of the continuous research advance on understanding molecular mechanisms and pathways involved in prostate cancer growth and progression, particularly regarding the role of androgen signaling [2], we are still far from clearly defining the complex etiology of this disease, which probably includes genetic background, age and physiologic status, lifestyle (e.g. diet and tobacco smoking) and exposure to other environmental risk factors.
In the vast group of environmental pollutants, the toxic heavy metal cadmium is considered a likely candidate as a causative agent for prostate...