EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES ON THE BULLYING PHENOMENON

Abstract

This article proposes to carry out or systematically review the bullying literature and try to analyze its manifestation in Romanian schools. The impact of bullying is determined by serious consequences not onlyfor children who carefor the aggressors, but also for those who care for initiating aggression. This is an important problem that will not be solved when a holistic approach (parents, teachers, specialists, local community, etc.) will not address the reasons for caring for children who humiliate and intimidate others and will identify the causes that trigger such behavior. With the right guidance and training, children can acquire the necessary skills to solve their problems instead of managing them by intimidating others. In order to provide such education and to successfully eliminate aggression from schools, we need to establish the causes and effects of school aggression.

Headnote

ABSTRACT: This article proposes to carry out or systematically review the bullying literature and try to analyze its manifestation in Romanian schools. The impact of bullying is determined by serious consequences not onlyfor children who carefor the aggressors, but also for those who care for initiating aggression. This is an important problem that will not be solved when a holistic approach (parents, teachers, specialists, local community, etc.) will not address the reasons for caring for children who humiliate and intimidate others and will identify the causes that trigger such behavior. With the right guidance and training, children can acquire the necessary skills to solve their problems instead of managing them by intimidating others. In order to provide such education and to successfully eliminate aggression from schools, we need to establish the causes and effects of school aggression.

KEYWORDS: Bullying, conflict resolution, school communities, administrators, teachers, students, parents, alternative dispute resolution (ADR), administrative decisions, sanctions.

INTRODUCTION

In the modern world, the information leap can have negative effects on the emotional development of the child. Children who do not have enough time to relax, enjoy childhood, spend quality time with their family and friends can become anxious, stressed and, as a result, can develop violent behaviors. Children have different needs, such as being able to relax, play with friends, belong to a group and be accepted by them. Protecting children from all forms of violence, including abuse and neglect, is a truly global phenomenon and must be addressed by academies.1

Our research was divided into three major themes, each based on a specific research question:

a. The first theme was the existence of conflicts between the stakeholders mentioned above, the types of conflicts that occurred and their sources. In this case, our research question was: what types of conflicts occur within school communities in Chiajna, Romania and what are their causes? In addition to the fact that we wanted to determine the typology and sources of school conflicts, we wanted to understand how all these actors perceive these situations because there is a strong connection between how we perceive a conflict and how we intervene to resolve it.

b. The second theme of the study is conflict resolution and procedures, and the research question is: What are the procedures (formal and informal) used by school communities to resolve conflicts that arise between stakeholders? This research question aims to determine the formal and informal procedures used by school stakeholders to resolve or manage conflict situations within their school. In this sense, we are interested in both formal and informal procedures, but also in how each stakeholder group perceives its effectiveness in addressing conflict.

c. The final theme of this study is third-party intervention, which is based on the following research question: Is a third-party intervention mechanism involved in resolving conflicts within school communities? We wanted to find out, first, whether such a procedure exists within the school communities we study and, second, whether there is a need for it. In addition, it is important to observe how school stakeholders perceived this in terms of effectiveness in resolving their conflicts.

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Bullying is an Anglo-Saxon term, taken over in Romanian specialized literature without being translated; the related term in Romanian is hartuirea. Early research on school aggression that drew attention to its impact on students and its daily frequency was conducted in Scandinavian countries.2 Three criteria distinguish bullying from other types of aggression: power imbalance, repetition or duration of negative actions, and deliberate intent to harm. Research was initially directed at physical and verbal forms of bullying.3

In the 2000s, digital aggression was expressed through the concept of Cyberbullying.4 Smith and Sharp5 define this phenomenon as "systematic abuse of power" involving repeated abuses of power in relationships.6 Gladden 7 define bullying as "any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another young person or group of young people who are not siblings or current dating partners that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance and is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated. Bullying can cause targeted social, psychological, or emotional harm or suffering." "Aggression is prolonged violence, mental or physical, directed by an individual or group against a person who cannot defend himself in this situation.8

The act of aggression has certain characteristics that distinguish it from an argument between colleagues or friends. Aggressors use physical force, have access to private information or popularity to intimidate, control or hurt others. Harassment is done deliberately with the intention of hurting, causing psycho-emotional and physical damage; it is repeated over a period of time, so it is not a singular behavior, but an abuse of power in the sense that victims have difficulty defending themselves or protecting themselves against it. Theorists conceptualize it as a subcategory of aggression, where bullying is the assertion of power through aggression or intimidation9, being an abuse of social power.10

Researchers have identified several types of aggression, which we can list, without considering this an exhaustive approach: verbal (nicknames,

teasing, sarcasm, spreading false rumors/gossip, abusive or threatening comments, negative remarks about a person's culture, religion, skin color, family, home, sexual orientation, etc); making negative comments about one's own/physical body appearance, clothing (making remarks about disability or physical condition); isolation (unfriendly, unfair attitude, exclusion from the group, forcing to be friends with certain people); physical behaviors (hitting, pushing, involving, harassing, physically beating, hiding or destroying a person, etc), aggressive gestures (offensive and threatening gestures), online harassment (hate emails or threats).11

The main types of bullying are based on: appearance (e.g. hair colour, body shape/weight, clothing) race/ethnicity (e.g. racial slurs, racial gestures), gender identity (e.g. transgender, other gender identities, school, free identity), care), sexual orientation (e.g. lesbian, gay or bisexual (LGB) (real or perceived) (homophobia). This phenomenon should be seen as a community problem and not just a problem of the child, parent or teacher. Bullying is a form of aggressive behaviour that is systematically and continuously practiced by a person or group of young people who find themselves relatively defenseless against a child/person.12

Bullying is considered a phenomenon with a complex impact due to the fact that the various manifestations of recurrent violence among peers go beyond the school environment, having consequences that extend to other areas or contexts such as the family and/or society.13 Also, bullying is not specific to a local community, a country, but encompasses most of the states of the world, becoming an international problem. The data and studies are significant in confirming that the extent of this phenomenon at national and international level requires a more careful analysis to study the phenomenon and understand how it is triggered, how it manifests itself, what its impact is in order to identify effective ways to prevent and reduce it.

Rashmi Shetgiri has analyzed, summarized and identified in numerous studies the risk factors that could trigger aggressive behaviors. These risk factors are related to the child, family/parents, group of friends/colleagues, community, the child's younger age, the presence of depression and/or other mental health problems or emotional/ developmental/behavioral problems, low school performance, addictions, the use of unacceptable substances, exposure to abuse and violence, high levels of anger in the child and poor self-control, poor communication with parents, lack of emotional control, or difficult communication between parents, lack of parental supervision, frequent and violent conflicts in the family, negative relationships with schoolmates, negative influences from peers, coming from economically disadvantaged backgrounds or "unsafe" neighborhoods, etc.

The study conducted by S.N. Georgiou14 and published in The British Journal of Educational Psychology states that maternal and paternal depression can influence the perpetuation of child bullying. Maternal depression is usually associated with aggression and can be explained by negative interactions and also associated with negative thinking. In general, interactions between depressed mothers and their children are more hostile, irritable, critical, as confirmed by studies by I. Fihrer.15

It has been found16 that some children who were tortured by their fathers when they were at school were prone to have children who were bullied. Certainly, a warm and affectionate environment will reduce the chances of developing and learning aggressive behaviors. "mtolerable tensions between the individual and his home environment are the result of the suffering and dangers experienced by the child. Instead of a cheerful and collaborative attitude, the attitude of the young child will be one of fighting, attacking or giving up".17

The phenomenon of "bullying" has long exceeded the acceptable boundaries, being increasingly present in Romanian society, even in the school environment, where children are supervised and where they operate in a microsystem. Bullying is not only a phenomenon characteristic of Romanian schools, as we also find it internationaHy regardless of race, religion, gender, social status, physical status or age, this problem has been considered a phenomenon that has reached a global level. Mexico holds the first place in the world in cases of bullying in compulsory education (kindergarten, primary school, middle school), according to OECD data.18

The phenomenon of violence in schools has become one of the main objectives of public policies in recent decades. Europe and the United States are a reference point for the first major experiences of violence worldwide: mass murder and suicide of the child and adolescent population. The increasing influence of technology, antisocial groups, the consumption of illegal substances, as well as the poor development of community protective factors and the prevention of bullying behaviors can be identified as possible causes of the increase in bullying. These events have led to an increase in the number and new forms of aggression and violent actions in schools. In addition, the fast pace of the society in which we live and the flow of information, especially regarding social media, have made it difficult to identify acts of aggression.

Several studies (O'Moore, Minton, 2004; Dillon, 2015) show that a global trend of the current generation of children is to have more emotional problems than in the past. It is well known that aggression against children, especially those in residential institutions, has a large amplitude and, despite the importance and scope of this phenomenon, is not diminishing, but on the contrary is expanding.

M.Constantinescu identified important factors of increased aggression in schools - poor communication skills of teachers with students, insufficiënt training in conflict management and combating violence, low teacher motivation.19 The importance of developing good communication skills will eliminate frustration by satisfying individual needs (mutual expression and understanding), will validate the child and the parent (I recognize and accept you, I listen to you and understand you) which will imply social acceptance and inclusion20 and will decrease the number of provocative and aggressive behaviors.

These aspects justify the need to develop and carry out continuous training activities for teachers, to raise awareness of all forms of bullying of children, to develop activities to prevent these aggressions and to promote children's rights for a safe and secure environment. It is also important to initiate programs to reduce the level of aggression in schools. In this regard, J. Dillon draws attention to the importance of initiating prevention programs and the objective of empowering teachers with the necessary tools to develop a "no aggression, no hate" culture in schools and communities, because people are generally good and want to have positive relationships with others.21

THE MAIN TYPES OF CONFLICTS ENCOUNTERED IN THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT

Sources and typologies of school conflicts regarding conflicts in the school community include disagreements, tensions, or disputes (which can sometimes become violent) that arise among the four key stakeholders. If we look at the parties involved, we can identify the following types of school-community conflicts:22

a. Parent-teacher conflicts: differences of opinion between parents and teachers regarding a student's academie performance, behavior, or educational needs.

b. Student-teacher conflicts: tensions between students and teachers regarding classroom rules, homework, grades, or disciplinary actions. This type of conflict is the most common and usually constitutes the root cause of parent-teacher conflict.

c. Teacher-administrator conflicts: disagreements between teachers and school administrators regarding policies, curriculum decisions, or professional issues.

d. Teacher-teacher conflicts: disputes arising from competition for positions, resources, personal or professional values.

e. Parent-administrator conflicts: differences of opinion between parents and school administrators regarding school policies, disciplinary actions, or educational practices.

f. Student-student conflicts: conflicts between students, such as bullying, peer pressure, social cliques, or disputes over personal matters.

Considering the above-mentioned aspects, conflicts in the school community can refer to the following:23

a. Community-school conflicts: disagreements between the school and the local community over issues such as school zoning, funding, or use of school facilities;

b. Cultural or value conflicts: conflicts arising from cultural differences, religious beliefs, or differing values within the school community;

c. Budget and resource allocation conflicts: disagreements over how limited resources, such as funding, technology, or educational materials, should be distributed among different programs or departments;

d. Curriculum and educational philosophy conflicts: disputes over the content, approach, or focus of the school program and educational methods;

e. Policy implementation conflicts: tensions arise when stakeholders disagree over the implementation of specific school policies or initiatives.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

In his seminal book, The Conflict-Positive Organization: Stimulate Diversity and Create Unity, Dean Tjosvold focuses on the idea of promoting positive conflict management within organizations, aiming to use conflicts as opportunities for growth, creativity, and increased collaboration. Tjosvold suggests that rather than viewing conflicts as negative or disruptive, organizations can create an environment that encourages open dialogue, diverse perspectives, and constructive conflict resolution.24

The same ideas are expressed in other publications by Louis Kriesberg,25 Bernard May er,26 Cloke and Goldsmith27. For all of them, conflict is an inherent part of life that cannot be avoided or eliminated. It serves as a necessary engine for evolution, improvement, and combating bad and unacceptable behavior at both the individual and societal levels. However, the way in which conflict is approached and managed determines whether it becomes destructive or positive. An ineffective approach can lead to negative and catastrophic consequences, while a collaborative approach that seeks inclusive and imaginative solutions can lead to positive change, improved relationships, stronger organizations, and communities. Therefore, conflict is not inherently good or bad, but its nature depends on how it is handled.

Valente, Lourenqo and Németh consider schools as a microcosm of society, where diverse perspectives and ways of being, thinking and living are brought together, leading to daily conflicts. They argued that managing such situations requires learning, highlighting the need for teachers to receive conflict management training to effectively manage classroom conflicts and to teach students to view and manage conflicts constructively.28

Schools, viewed as communities of people as well as organizations, can greatly benefit from implementing collaborative procedures to resolve conflicts that arise within them. As previously stated, conflicts are a natural part of the lives of individuals and organizations. However, when they occur in schools, they can be disruptive and cause problems for everyone in the school community. Therefore, a better understanding of the possible venues for resolving conflicts in schools is extremely important for schools themselves and for society in general.

POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING AND COMBATING BULLYING

Over time, policies against bullying and harassment have been formulated29 to minimize the risk of bullying by raising awareness and offering prevention strategies and by providing concrete techniques to deal with any bullying behaviours in the event of their occurrence. The European strategy against bullying, recently summarised by the European Anti-Bullying Network (EAN), "Build the Future, Stop Bullying", adopts an inclusive school approach.

Anti-bullying policies aim to prevent bullying across the entire school community, including school staff, teachers, pupils, families, volunteers. European schools 30are legally required to have an anti-bullying policy, but reports confirm the lack of coverage in important areas. In line with the European Strategy against Bullying, schools should develop an anti-bullying policy through strategies and measures to encourage good and positive behaviour and to prevent any form of bullying among pupils and staff.

To prevent other negative consequences of aggression such as school failure and other inappropriate behaviors in terms of social relationships, self-affirmation, self-realization, anti-bullying policies should include a set of clear measures regarding what constitutes an act of intimidation, how to identify it, how to report it, investigate it, as well as the roles of each actor involved (students, teachers, parents, community). The development of strategies for resolving conflicts and their management, as well as the prevention of aggressive behaviors, are realities that require a solution through public policies.31

Some public policies aimed at reducing bullying developed, implemented and studied in Asia, Europe and North America, were systematized by D. P. Farrington.32 The phenomenon of bullying violates the written and unwritten norms of society and the school community, falling into the category of negative deviance - it defies community norms and harms individual freedoms; it includes social intimidation interactions using specific offensive language and creates a social context of power inequality in which the victim is subjected to abusive socio-emotional treatment by the aggressor. The objectives of antisocial behavior include actions that threaten the well-being of the person (physical, verbal, ethnic harassment), actions against the property and personal belongings of other people (criminal bullying) and actions against social coexistence (social bullying by exclusion and damage to a person's image). This type of school bullying is reported to the category of perpetrators and is included in the scope of juvenile delinquency. In the case of this type of aggression, legal action can be taken if the identity of the aggressor is known.

National studies in Romania on the phenomenon of bullying in schools have not been a priority, the phenomenon being reduced to the level of general signs and descriptions. Existing studies are directed towards school violence (e.g., UNICEF, 2006). Dan Olweus, the most recognized expert on bullying, claims that "a student is bullied or victimized when he is repeatedly and over time exposed to negative actions by one or more students). Research suggests that different forms of support can mitigate the effects of different types of aggression on psychoemotional development. However, there are very few studies that have examined how different forms of social support could mitigate the impact of aggression on the mental health of children and adolescents. Some studies33 suggest that family social support may be an important factor in protecting against the negative effects of bullying on students' health.

Given the harmful effects of aggressive behaviors, effective prevention and intervention efforts must be a priority. However, studies investigating effective prevention and intervention strategies for combating aggression are not as numerous.

Several studies addressing bullying prevention efforts suggest that attention should be focused on increasing adolescents' empathy and self-esteem, reducing adolescent problem behaviors, promoting and cultivating quality parental relationships, and reducing online time. For example, researchers who conducted a study34 with adolescents in Turkey found that those adolescents who were less empathetic were more likely to engage in acts of bullying. The results of their study showed that the combined effect of affective behavior (e.g., experiencing someone else's feelings) and cognitive empathy (e.g., considering others) played a key role in influencing adolescents' engagement in bullying. Specifically, empathy regarding adolescent activation was linked to less negative behavior. The results of this study suggest that future prevention and intervention efforts will be geared toward increasing adolescents' affective (e.g., "My friend's feelings don't affect me") and cognitive empathy (e.g., "I understand why my friend might behave this way when this happens"), in an effort to reduce participation in bullying.

CONCLUSIONS

In Romanian schools, the most widely used method of conflict resolution is administrative decisions, which often take the form of sanctions. In this context, we emphasize the importance of the Student Statute in helping students understand and defend their rights. These two bodies can be useful in implementing alternative dispute resolution methods, especially peer mediation.

In our research, we could also observe the negative effects of the rigid system of sanctions - students who most often refuse to go to teachers for help are afraid that they will be sanctioned without the possibility of having a constructive discussion. If they receive a sanction, they usually do not understand why they received it, but most importantly, it would not reflect on their actions and, most likely, they would repeat them, risking additional punishments.

Openly addressing conflict in schools and using alternative dispute resolution (ADR) methods are crucial for several reasons.

1. Maintaining a positive learning environment: Conflicts can disrupt the learning environment in schools, affecting not only the students directly involved, but also their peers and teachers. Open communication and ADR help restore a harmonious atmosphere, allowing everyone to focus on education.

2. Teaching conflict resolution skills: Schools can model healthy conflict resolution for students by openly discussing conflicts and using ADR methods. It teaches students essential life skills, including effective communication, empathy, and compromise, that they can use in different situations throughout their lives.

3. Preventing escalation: Ignoring conflicts or allowing them to escalate can lead to more significant problems. Open dialogue and ADR methods allow conflicts to be addressed early, reducing the likelihood of them escalating into more serious problems or even violence.

4. Promoting inclusion and equity: Open discussions about conflicts can reveal underlying issues related to discrimination, bullying or inequity. Addressing these issues through ADR methods can lead to more equitable and inclusive school environments.

5. Building trust and relationships: Encouraging open communication and ADR methods foster trust among students, teachers and parents. Trust is essential for effective learning and collaboration within school communities.

6. Promoting restorative justice: ADR methods often align with the principles of restorative justice, which focuses on repairing harm and restoring relationships rather than punitive measures. This approach can be particularly beneficial in school environments, as it encourages empathy and personal growth.

7. Supporting individual growth: Openly addressing conflicts and using ADR methods can help people involved in conflicts learn from their experiences and develop skills for better future interactions. This could lead to personal growth and development.

8. Self-governance is possible and often desirable, in contrast to the common argument that externally imposed management is the best or only form of sustainable governance. By encouraging a more diverse perspective on conflict management decision-making processes and involving all stakeholders in the school community in this effort, school administrators will satisfy multiple values and interests that will lead to a more effective way of managing conflicts.

9. Conflicts are not fixed or straightforward and cannot be easily resolved. Although school regulations provide quick and effective solutions, the best way to resolve conflicts is through collaboration and the involvement of all parties in the decision-making process. This approach ensures a win-win situation for all involved. Furthermore, the ADR method recognizes that each conflict is unique and requires a personalized approach, rather than using a one-size-fits-all solution.

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Footnote

1 M. Constantinescu; C. Constantinescu, C. Dumitru, Social Work and Protection of Abused and Neglected Children, Re vista de Asistenta Sociala/Social Work Review, Anul XVI, Nr.3/2017, Polirom, 2017, ISSN: 1583-0608.

2 E. Debarbieux, E. et al, La violence en milieu scolaire - 2 : Ie désordre des choses. Paris, 1999: ESF, p. 67.

3 D. Olweus, Bully/victim problems in school: Facts and intervention in European Journal of Psychology of Education, Vol. XII, 4,1991, pp. 495-510.

4 P. Smith, H. Cowie, R. Olafsson, A. Liefooghe, Definitions ofbullying: A comparison of terms used, and age and gender differences, in a Fourteen - Country international comparison in Child development, 2002, 73(4).

5 P. Smith, S. Sharp, School Bullying: Insights and Perspectives, London: Routledge, 1998, pp. 45-55.

6 P. Smith, Understanding School Bullying: lts Nature & Prevention Strategies, 2014, Sage DOL 10.4135/9781473906853.

7 R. Gladden, A. Vivolo-Kantor, M. Hamburger, C. Lumpkin, Bullying Surveillance Among Youths: Uniform Definitions for Public Health and Recommended Data Elements, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Education, 2014, p. 17.

8 A. Mellor, Helping Victims, In Elliot, M., ed. Bullying: A Practical Guide to Coping for Schools. Harlow: Longman, 1991, p.112.

9 W. Craig, D. Pepier, R. Atlas, Observations of bullying in the playground and in the classroom in School Psychology International, 2000, 21(1).

10 P. Smith, H. Cowie, R. Olafsson, A. Liefooghe, Definitions ofbullying: A comparison of terms used, and age and gender differences, in a Fourteen - Country international comparison in Child development, 2002, 73(4).

11 D. Otovescu, The content, factors and forms of socialization, in Otovescu, D., General Sociology, , Craiova, 2002, Beladi, pp. 230-232.

12 M. O'Moore, S. Minton, Dealing with Bullying in Schools. A Training Manual for Teachers, Parents and Other Professionals, First Edition, Trinity College: Dublin, 2004,

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446211878.

13 R. Shetgiri, Bullying and Victimization Among Children in Adv Pediatr, 2013; 60(1): 33-51. doi: [10.1016/j.yapd.2013.04.004].

14 S. Georgiou, Bullying and victimization at school: the rok of mothers in The British journal of educational psychology; 2008, pp.109-125 [PubMed].

15 I. Fihrer, C. McMahon, A. Taylor, The impact of postnatal and concurrent maternal depression on child behaviour during the early school years, Journal of Affective Disorders 2009 Dec; 119 (l-3):116-23.

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18 OECD. 2014, Pisa 2012 results: What students know and can do (Volume I, Revised Edition, February 2014). Norway: OECD Publishing.

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