Foot Loading Characteristics of Chinese Bound Feet Women: A Comparative Analysis

Abstract

The custom of bound feet among Chinese women has existed for almost a century. This practice has influenced the daily life of Chinese women, especially during everyday locomotion. The primary aim of this study is to analyze the loading patterns of bound feet. Specifically, the plantar pressure and center of pressure were analyzed for peak pressure, contact area, force time integral, center of pressure displacement velocity and trajectory in the anterior-posterior direction via a comparison with normal feet. The key outcomes from this work were that the forefoot and rearfoot of bound feet bear the whole loading during stance phase. The center of pressure displacement velocity of bound feet was also greatly reduced with the shortening of trajectories. This suggests that the proprioceptive system adjusts motor function to adapt to new loading patterns while maintaining locomotive stability. A biomechanical understanding of bound feet may assist with prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of bound feet disorders.

About the Authors:

Yaodong Gu

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation: Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China

Qichang Mei

Affiliation: Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China

Justin Fernandez

Affiliations Department of Engineering Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Jianshe Li

Affiliation: Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China

Xuejun Ren

Affiliation: School of Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Neng Feng

Affiliation: Rehabilitation Center, Ningbo Ninth Hospital, Ningbo, China

Introduction

The role of the foot during locomotion has long been studied as it is the primary articulating joint that makes contact with the environment. Whether under static or dynamic conditions, the feet work pivotally to keep balance during walking or running. Particular research interest has been placed on the role of foot morphology, functions, and deformity. Foot deformities such as hallux valgus [1], flat foot or low-arched feet [2], high-arched feet [3] have been reported. However, there is one foot deformity that has been relatively ignored biomechanically; that is bound feet or feet binding, also called ‘Chanzu’ in China [4].

Bound feet have existed in China for almost one-thousand years among women. Feet binding started in the tenth century AD in an effort to mimic a particularly graceful palace dancer and after that the custom became prevalent [5]. It was originally aimed to modify the shape of feet into ‘small feet’ or ‘three-inch golden lotus’, which was believed to be the aesthetic standard, an essential condition to marry into a wealthy family and elevate the social status in ancient China [6]. Women with bound feet were believed to bring better sexual intercourse from a masculine point of view [7,8]. Feet binding often began with bandages from the age of six to prevent further growth till adulthood. The bandages were regularly released to clean the feet to avoid infection, inflammation and decay [8].

The study of bound feet was previously concentrated on the origin, cultural significance, and feminine rights, social and historical background. The morphological characteristics of bound feet were extensively studied initially from image analysis [9], footprint features [10] and Computed Tomography (CT)-ray images [11–13]. An in-depth analysis of bound feet was analyzed with Mimics software to build a foot model from X-ray images and the skeletal re-formation characteristics of the foot joint illustrated [14,15]. Apart from the deformity of the second to fifth toes, the calcaneal-first metatarsal angle, talo-first metatarsal angle and horizontal metatarsal angle were collected to show that the longitudinal arch of bound feet was extremely high and broken owing to the binding forces compared with normal feet [14].

The purpose of the study was to investigate the plantar loading characteristics of bound feet on the basis of the morphological property. A comparative analysis of plantar pressure, center of pressure (CoP) and the ankle’s movement were conducted between old females with bound feet and normal feet to illustrate the unique characteristics of plantar loading. These findings will be of great cultural and historic significance for people in understanding gait loading features of this particular group with bound feet in China.

Method and Materials

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Ningbo University. Prior to the test experiments, subjects were informed of requirements and procedures of the walking test. All gave informed written consent to participate in the study.

Subjects

Six female participants volunteered to take the walking test in the experiment. Three of them had bound feet since their early age (about 5 to 7 years old), another three had normal feet. All participants could walk without external support. Before the walking test, subjects were required to walk five to ten minutes with self-selected comfortable pace for testing familiarization. There was no statistically significant difference between the bound and normal feet groups in age, height, mass and BMI. Participant statistics are presented in Table 1.

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

Table 1. The basic information of participants with bound feet and normal feet.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.t001

Methods and equipment

The in-shoe pressure measurement system (Novel Pedar System, Germany) was employed in this study to collect the pressure and force exerted on the pressure sensors of the insole at a frequency of 50Hz. The thin pressure-measuring insole with 99 force sensors has a linear response to applied loads ranging from 0 N/cm2 to 50 N/cm2. All sensors of the insole were individually calibrated before testing. The size of insoles for subjects with bound feet and normal feet were consistent with their feet length.

A high speed camera (Fastcam SA 3, Photron, Japan) was fixed in a three-meter distance from the left side of the 10-meter walkway and simultaneously employed to collect ankle movement (dorsi-flexion and plantar-flexion) in the sagittal plane at a frequency of 250Hz. Four reflective markers were respectively fixed to the lateral calcaneus, lateral malleolus, fifth-metatarsal and lateral mid-shank of the left leg and foot. The video of ankle movement in the sagittal plane was quantified via SIMI motion analysis system (SIMI, Unterschleissheim, Germany).

Data collection and statistical analysis

One gait cycle was defined by the left foot of all participants’ successively contacting the ground twice. Peak pressure, force time integral, contact area and stance time were collected from the left foot. Data were collected and averaged via a three walking-trial of both participants with bound feet and normal feet to ensure the reliability and validity of the walking test [16]. Subjects were required to walk at a self-selected and comfortable speed. Owing to the particular morphological characteristics of foot deformation after binding, the insole was divided into four anatomical parts, Medial Forefoot (MF), Lateral Forefoot (LF), Medial Rearfoot (MR) and Lateral Rearfoot (LR) to collect data from both bound and normal feet groups for analysis (Fig 1). To explicitly show the properties of binding feet, the stance phase was divided into four individual phases according to the common patterns of walking gait [16,17]. The four phases were initial contact phase (ICP), forefoot contact phase (FFCP), foot flat phase (FFP) and forefoot push off phase (FFPOP) [17] (Fig 2). The center of pressure (CoP) trajectory and the CoP displacement velocity in the anterior-posterior direction were taken to analyze the difference between bound feet and normal feet.

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

Fig 1. The morphology of bound feet (left: bottom view; right: medial view, the two red lines are the loading parts of bound feet during locomotion.)

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.g001

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

Fig 2. The center of pressure (CoP) trajectory of bound feet (left) and normal feet (right) (ICP represents Initial Contact Phase, FFCP represents Forefoot Contact Phase, FFP represents Flat Foot Phase and FFPOP represents Forefoot Push Off Phase; the circle indicates the location of CoP while stance phase.)

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.g002

The LSD (least significant difference) of ANOVA (analysis of variance) was taken with SPSS 17.0 to analyze the difference of peak pressure, contact area, force time integral, stance time, CoP displacement velocity in anterior-posterior direction and the ROM (range of motion) of the ankle in a sagittal plane between bound and normal feet. The significance level was set at 0.05.

Results

All subjects were required to walk at a self-selected speed for three trials and the data gathered from the measuring system were averaged for statistical analysis. The peak pressure, contact area, force time integral (impulse) and CoP trajectory and displacement velocity in anterior-posterior direction were taken to illustrate the difference between bound and normal feet.

Fig 3-A shows the peak pressure of four anatomical parts (medial and lateral of the rear and forefoot). There is a significant difference between bound and normal feet, with p = 0.000<0.05 of the medial forefoot, p = 0.000<0.05 of the lateral forefoot, p = 0.000<0.05 of the medial rearfoot and p = 0.000<0.05 of the lateral rearfoot.

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

Fig 3. A. The peak pressure of bound and normal feet in different anatomical parts (* indicates that significance exists between bound and normal feet, p<0.05.).

B. The contact area of bound and normal feet in different anatomical parts (* indicates significance exists between bound and normal feet, p<0.05.). C. The force time integral (impulse) of bound feet and normal feet in different anatomical parts (* indicates significance between bound and normal feet, p<0.05.).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.g003

The contact area between bound and normal feet also showed significant difference in the medial forefoot and lateral forefoot, with p = 0.000<0.05 and p = 0.01<0.05, respectively (Fig 3-B).

Furthermore, the force time integral (impulse) of bound and normal feet showed significant differences at the medial forefoot, medial rearfoot and lateral rearfoot, with p = 0.000<0.005, p = 0.000<0.05 and p = 0.000<0.05, respectively (Fig 3-C).

The center of pressure (CoP) trajectory of bound and normal feet is shown in Fig 2, and the two red circles demonstrate the location of CoP while flat foot during the stance phase. Compared with the CoP trajectory of normal walking (right), the CoP trajectory of bound feet (left) shows significant difference with the shortening of the CoP length and outward shifting while foot off ground. Owing to feet binding foot deformity, the second to fifth toes of bound feet were folded beneath the sole of feet (the left image of Fig 1).

The quantitative indices to illustrate the difference between bound and normal feet are shown in Table 2. There were significant differences of CoP progression velocity in the anterior-posterior direction (p = 0.01<0.05). However, the stance time exhibited no significant difference between bound and normal feet. Ankle movement (dorsi-flexion and plantar-flexion) in the sagittal plane during stance also showed significant difference, with p = 0.024<0.05.

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

Table 2. The CoP progression velocity in anterior-posterior direction and stance time.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.t002

Discussion

The custom of bound feet has influenced the social status, daily life and thinking of Chinese women for a long-period of history till abolishment by the Chinese Republic in the early 20th century. In contrast to previous studies concerning bound feet, this research focused on feet loading and biomechanical motion characteristics of Chinese women with bound feet through a comparative analysis.

As highlighted in Fig 1, the characteristics of bound feet are illustrated from a bottom view (left) and a medial view (right). From previous work, morphological features of bound feet were imaged via Computed Tomography (CT) scans and geometricized using Mimics to rebuild the model of bound feet [14,15]. In that quantitative study the features of talocalcaneal angle, calcaneal-first metatarsal angle and talo-first metatarsal angle showed that the broken longitudinal arch was higher than the normal foot. This was attributed to long-term feet binding with bandages and continuous external force that restrained further foot growth in the anterior-posterior direction leading to an abnormal high longitudinal arch. The I-II inter-metatarsal angle, I-V inter-metatarsal angle and first cuneiform-metatarsal angle highlighted that the folding of the second to fifth toes underneath the forefoot was due to the external binding force of wrapped bandages (Fig 1). The sharp deformity of the second to fifth toes and the abnormal higher longitudinal arch of bound feet from the model explicitly characterize the morphological features of feet binding. While walking, the plantar loading regions were the heel and forefoot (red parts in the right picture of Fig 1); unlike the loading patterns of normal feet, which are characterized by loading patterns that are lateral rearfoot to lateral midfoot, and medial forefoot till the great toe [17]. The peak pressure, contact area, force time integral (impulse) and center of pressure (CoP) trajectory and progression velocity in anterior-posterior direction were collected from the Novel insole planter pressure measurement system, the movement of ankle in the sagittal plane was analyzed to illustrate the difference between bound feet and normal feet.

The peak pressure of bound and normal feet were acquired from four anatomical parts, namely the medial forefoot (MF), lateral forefoot (LF), medial rearfoot (MR) and lateral rearfoot (LR) as shown in Fig 3-A. The peak pressure of these four parts were significantly higher than those of normal feet, with all the values of p = 0.000<0.05. The reason is highly similar to the loading patterns of unstable shoes, which have two unstable elements (hemispheres) at the heel and forefoot regions [17]. The reduction of supporting contact area to the body mass leads to the rise in peak pressure in the corresponding foot parts compared with normal feet, excluding the influence of subject height, weight and BMI with bound and normal feet (Table 1). The rearfoot contact area of bound and normal feet showed no significant difference. However, there was a significant difference at the forefoot, with both the medial forefoot of bound feet larger than normal feet (p = 0.000<0.05), and lateral forefoot of normal feet larger than bound feet (p = 0.001<0.05). One reason is that the deformed toes become the supporting base in the lateral forefoot and consequently reduce contact area, owing to deformity of the second to fifth toes and forefoot (four toes folded underneath plantar sole, shown in bottom view of bound feet in Fig 1). The greater contact area in the medial forefoot of bound feet is likely due to the higher protrusion of the lateral forefoot with deformed toes on the planter sole leading to pain. The proprioceptive system adjusts the movement of feet to alleviate this pain, thus increasing the contact area in the medial forefoot part compared with normal feet [5, 18, 19].

The force time integral, also defined as impulse, has been utilized as an indicator of overuse injuries, calluses or other skin pathologies [20–22]. In this study, the force time integral of four anatomical parts, medial forefoot (MF), lateral forefoot (LF), medial rearfoot (MR) and lateral rearfoot (LR) were collected. Fig 3-C shows the force time integral in MF, MR and LR of bound feet are significantly larger than those of normal feet (p = 0.000<0.05), respectively. One explanation for this is consistent with the former explanation of peak pressure in the four anatomical parts. Table 1 shows that no differences exist for subject weight, height and BMI between bound and normal feet, bound feet with rearfoot and forefoot bearing the whole body mass during stance contrary to normal feet. Further, the stance time of subjects with bound feet and normal feet show no significant difference (Table 2). Thus, the force time integral in the medial rearfoot (MR), lateral rearfoot (LR) and medial forefoot (MF) of bound feet are larger than those of normal feet. However, the force time integral in the lateral forefoot (LF) showed no difference between bound and normal feet due to the reduction of contact area, and associated pain in this region, leading to a shift of plantar loading to the medial forefoot. Although subjects with bound feet did not present any overuse injuries, like metatarsal stress fracture, the three bound feet women all exhibited thick calluses in the forefoot and rearfoot consistent with previous studies [9,20]. As one cultural explanation goes, women with bound feet were restricted to go around and confined to the home [4]. This may partly explain why bound feet women had lower rates of overuse injuries.

The center of pressure (CoP) trajectories of bound and normal feet is shown in Fig 2. The CoP progression velocity in the anterior-posterior direction was also collected, with velocity of bound feet being 156.6±27.5 mm/s and velocity of normal feet being 205.9±12.1 mm/s, p = 0.01. Ankle movement in the sagittal plane was quantified with range of motion (ROM, Table 2). Further evaluating the CoP trajectory in Fig 2 [17], the stance phase was divided into initial contact phase, forefoot contact phase, flat foot phase and forefoot push-off phase. Subjects with bound feet showed smaller ankle ROM (15.36±1.78°) than those of subjects with normal feet (25.82±3.65°) during stance, with p = 0.024. The bound feet also land in a less dorsi-flexion position with a more flat foot pose compared with normal feet in the initial contact phase (Fig 2). Another significant difference is in the forefoot push-off phase, where bound feet were in a less plantar-flexion position till forefoot off-ground and normal feet were entirely plantar-flexed until the toes off-ground (Fig 2). The likely reason is that subjects experience pain in the deformed toes underneath the forefoot and modify their gait to inhibit the toes push off during terminal stance phase. These unique gait characteristics might be formed in the early stage of feet binding of subjects at a young age (about six years old). The central nervous system informing motor functions is believed to reorganize the cortical composition after feet binding and form new gait patterns [5]. The aforementioned two factors most likely explain the reduction of the ankle’s ROM in the sagittal plane.

The length of bound feet was shorter than those of normal feet (Table 1). During locomotion walking stability is the key factor, especially for the old. In this study, the stance time of bound feet and normal feet showed no significant difference (Table 2), but the CoP progression velocity in the anterior-posterior direction of subjects with bound feet was smaller than those of normal feet. This may be partly explained by the fact that subjects with bound feet slow down their forward speed to ensure balance (internal perturbations), in a similar manner to people with normal feet in unstable shoes (external perturbations) showing lower walking speed to keep their balance [19,23]. Furthermore, proprioceptive adjustment of motor functions to minimize pain from foot deformation while maintaining locomotion may also explain why bound foot subjects lower their gait speed. In the flat foot phase (supporting stage) of stance, the CoP was fixed in the different foot parts, as the red circles highlight in Fig 2. Bound feet exhibited a backward shift in CoP towards the rearfoot compared with normal feet where the COP was towards the midfoot and forefoot. The broken longitudinal arch and deformed toes at the midfoot and forefoot would likely aggravate pain while bearing load during locomotion. Hence, the rearfoot becomes the principal supporting zone in the foot and is consistent with the peak pressure and force time integral in the rearfoot of bound feet being significantly larger than normal feet.

A couple of limitations in this study that should be considered was, firstly, that the number of subjects with bound feet was low due to most elderly Chinese women with bound feet not being able to walk without external assistance and finish the trials. Secondly, to investigate foot loading characteristics of bound feet, the feet were required to be fixed in shape with bandages, unlike the plantar sole which directly contacts with the plantar pressure measurement insole.

Conclusion

The study aimed to investigate the foot loading characteristics of women with bound feet in China. Unlike previous cultural or historic studies, this present work conducted a walking trial experiment to analyze gait loading patterns of bound feet via a comparison study with normal feet. While walking, the rearfoot and forefoot regions of bound feet bear most of the loading unlike normal feet, where the whole foot bears the load. The center of pressure (CoP), and displacement in the anterior-posterior direction is also significantly shortened compared with that of normal feet. The ankle’s range of motion (ROM) in the stance phase was also restricted owing to the deformity of the second to fifth toes and the broken longitudinal arch. Understanding loading patterns of Chinese women with bound feet from a biomechanical perspective not only explains the implications of Chinese cultural and historic traditions but also informs prevention, treatment and rehabilitation of feet disorders associated with bound feet.

Supporting Information

[Figure omitted. See PDF.]

S1 File. Repository of manuscript data.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.s001

(DOCX)

S2 File. Calculation of ankle ROM.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.s002

(DOCX)

S3 File. Plantar pressure (pp, ca & fti).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695.s003

(DOCX)

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: YG QM JL. Performed the experiments: YG QM NF. Analyzed the data: YG JL JF XR. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YG XR. Wrote the paper: YG QM JF XR.

Citation: Gu Y, Mei Q, Fernandez J, Li J, Ren X, Feng N (2015) Foot Loading Characteristics of Chinese Bound Feet Women: A Comparative Analysis. PLoS ONE 10(4): e0121695. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121695

References

1. Gu Y, Li F, Li J, Feng N, Lake MJ, Li ZY et al. (2014) Plantar Pressure Distribution Character In Young Female With Mild Hallux Valgus Wearing High-heeled Shoes. Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology 14(1), 1450008.

2. Chuckpaiwong B, Nunley JA, Mall NA, Queen RM (2008) The effect of foot type on in-shoe plantar pressure during walking and running. Gait and Posture 28: 405–411. pmid:18337103

3. Nachbauer W, Nigg BM (1992) Effectof arch height of the foot on ground reaction forces in runnings. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24: 1264–1269. pmid:1359377

4. Wilson A-M (2013) How the methods used to eliminate foot binding in China can be employed to eradicate female genital mutilation. Journal of Gender Studies 22: 17–37.

5. McGeoch PD (2007) Does cortical reorganisation explain the enduring popularity of foot-binding in medieval China? Med Hypotheses 69: 938–941. pmid:17367956

6. Greenhalgh S (1977) Bound Feet, Hobbled Lives: Women In Old China. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 2: 7–21.

7. Gates H (2008) Bound feet: How sexy were they? The History of the Family 13: 58–70.

8. Blake CF (1994) Foot-binding in Neo-Confucian China and the Appropriation of Female Labor. Signs 19: 676–712.

9. Jackson R (1990) The Chinese Foot Binding Syndrome Observations on the History and Sequelae of Wearing Ill-Fitting Shoes. International Journal of Dermatology 29: 322–328. pmid:2193894

10. Reischl U, Nandikolla V, Colby C, Mijović B, Wei HC (2008) A Case Study of Chinese Bound Feet:Application of Footprint Analysis. Collegium antropologicum 32: 629–632. pmid:18756921

11. Stone PK (2012) Binding women: Ethnology, skeletal deformations, and violence against women. International Journal of Paleopathology 2: 53–60.

12. Munk PL, Poon PY (1996) Bound Feet in an Elderly Chinese Woman. AJR American journal of roentgenology 167: 1216–1216. pmid:8911183

13. Howard R, Pillinger MH (2010) Consequences of Chinese foot binding. J Clin Rheumatol 16: 408. pmid:21119386

14. Ma J, Song Y, Rong M, Gu Y (2013) Bound foot metatarsals skeletal rays kinematics information through inverse modelling. Int J Biomedical Engineering and Technology 13: 147–153.

15. Zhang Y, Li FL, Shen WW, Li JS, Ren XJ, and Gu YD. (2014) Characteristics of the Skeletal System of Bound Foot: A Case Study. Biomimetics Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering 19: 120.

16. Hafer JF, Lenhoff MW, Song J, Jordan JM, Hannan MT, Hillstrom HJ (2013) Reliability of plantar pressure platforms. Gait and Posture 38: 544–548. pmid:23454044

17. Mei Q, Feng N, Ren X, Lake M, Gu Y (2015) Foot Loading patterns with different unstable soles structure. Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology 15(1), 1550014.

18. De Cock A, Vanrenterghem J, Willems T, Witvrouw E, De Clercq D (2008) The trajectory of the centre of pressure during barefoot running as a potential measure for foot function. Gait Posture 27: 669–675. pmid:17997096

19. Gu Y, Lu Y, Mei Q, Li J, Ren J (2014) Effects of different unstable sole construction on kinematics and muscle activity of lower limb. Hum Mov Sci 36C: 46–57.

20. Grouios G (2004) Corns and calluses in athletes’ feet: a cause for concern. The Foot 14: 175–184.

21. Alfuth M, Rosenbaum D (2011) Long distance running and acute effects on plantar foot sensitivity and plantar foot loading. Neurosci Lett 503: 58–62. pmid:21871535

22. Bergstra SA, Kluitenberg B, Dekker R, Bredeweg SW, Postema K, Van den Heuvel ER, et al. (In press) Running with a minimalist shoe increases plantar pressure in the forefoot region of healthy female runners. J Sci Med Sport.

23. Zhang X, Li B (2014) Influence of in-shoe heel lifts on plantar pressure and center of pressure in the medial–lateral direction during walking. Gait and Posture 39: 1012–1016. pmid:24440428