In situ and denuder-based measurements of elemental and reactive gaseous mercury with analysis by laser-induced fluorescence - results from the Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment

Abstract

The University of Miami (UM) deployed a sequential two-photon laser-induced fluorescence (2P-LIF) instrument for the in situ measurement of gaseous elemental mercury, Hg(0), during the Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment (RAMIX) campaign. A number of extended sampling experiments, typically lasting 6-8h but on one occasion extending to ∼24h, were conducted, allowing the 2P-LIF measurements of Hg(0) concentrations to be compared with two independently operated instruments using gold amalgamation sampling coupled with cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectroscopic (CVAFS) analysis. At the highest temporal resolution, ∼ 5min samples, the three instruments measured concentrations that agreed to within 10-25%. Measurements of total mercury (TM) were made by using pyrolysis to convert total oxidized mercury (TOM) to Hg(0). TOM was then obtained by difference. Variability in the ambient Hg(0) concentration limited our sensitivity for measurement of ambient TOM using this approach. In addition, manually sampled KCl-coated annular denuders were deployed and analyzed using thermal dissociation coupled with single-photon LIF detection of Hg(0). The TOM measurements obtained were normally consistent with KCl denuder measurements obtained with two Tekran speciation systems and with the manual KCl denuder measurements but with very large uncertainty. They were typically lower than measurements reported by the University of Washington (UW) Detector for Oxidized Hg Species (DOHGS) system. The ability of the 2P-LIF pyrolysis system to measure TM was demonstrated during one of the manifold HgBr₂ spikes but the results did not agree well with those reported by the DOHGS system. The limitations of the RAMIX experiment and potential improvements that should be implemented in any future mercury instrument intercomparison are discussed. We suggest that instrumental artifacts make a substantial contribution to the discrepancies in the reported measurements over the course of the RAMIX campaign. This suggests that caution should be used in drawing significant implications for the atmospheric cycling of mercury from the RAMIX results.

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ doi:10.5194/acp-17-465-2017 Author(s) 2017. CC Attribution 3.0 License.

Anthony J. Hynes1, Stephanie Everhart1, Dieter Bauer1, James Remeika1, and Cheryl Tatum Ernest1,a

1Division of Marine and Atmospheric Chemistry, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149, USA

acurrent address: Atmospheric Chemistry Department, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, 55128 Mainz, Germany

Correspondence to: Anthony J. Hynes ([email protected])

Received: 25 May 2016 Published in Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.: 18 July 2016 Revised: 9 November 2016 Accepted: 25 November 2016 Published: 10 January 2017

Abstract. The University of Miami (UM) deployed a sequential two-photon laser-induced uorescence (2P-LIF) instrument for the in situ measurement of gaseous elemental mercury, Hg(0), during the Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment (RAMIX) campaign. A number of extended sampling experiments, typically lasting 68 h but on one occasion extending to 24 h, were conducted, al

lowing the 2P-LIF measurements of Hg(0) concentrations to be compared with two independently operated instruments using gold amalgamation sampling coupled with cold vapor atomic uorescence spectroscopic (CVAFS) analysis. At the highest temporal resolution, 5 min samples, the three

instruments measured concentrations that agreed to within 1025 %. Measurements of total mercury (TM) were made by using pyrolysis to convert total oxidized mercury (TOM) to Hg(0). TOM was then obtained by difference. Variability in the ambient Hg(0) concentration limited our sensitivity for measurement of ambient TOM using this approach. In addition, manually sampled KCl-coated annular denuders were deployed and analyzed using thermal dissociation coupled with single-photon LIF detection of Hg(0). The TOM measurements obtained were normally consistent with KCl denuder measurements obtained with two Tekran speciation systems and with the manual KCl denuder measurements but with very large uncertainty. They were typically lower than measurements reported by the University of Washington (UW) Detector for Oxidized Hg Species (DOHGS) sys-

In situ and denuder-based measurements of elemental and reactive gaseous mercury with analysis by laser-induced uorescence results from the Reno Atmospheric MercuryIntercomparison Experiment

tem. The ability of the 2P-LIF pyrolysis system to measure

TM was demonstrated during one of the manifold HgBr2 spikes but the results did not agree well with those reported by the DOHGS system. The limitations of the RAMIX experiment and potential improvements that should be implemented in any future mercury instrument intercomparison are discussed. We suggest that instrumental artifacts make a substantial contribution to the discrepancies in the reported measurements over the course of the RAMIX campaign. This suggests that caution should be used in drawing signicant implications for the atmospheric cycling of mercury from the RAMIX results.

1 Introduction

The environmental and health impacts of mercury pollution are well recognized with impacts on human health and broader environmental concerns (US EPA, 2000; UNEP, 2013; Mergler et al., 2007; Dez, 2009; Scheuhammer et al., 2007). There have been extensive reviews of global emissions, measurements and biogeochemical cycling of mercury (Mason, 2009; Streets et al., 2011; Pirrone et al., 2009; Lindberg et al., 2007; Ebinghaus et al., 2009; Sprovieri et al., 2016; Selin, 2009). The concerns associated with the mercury problem have resulted in attempts to regulate and control emissions at both national and international levels. The

Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.

466 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

latest attempt in the United States is incorporated in the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (Houyoux and Strum, 2011;US EPA, 2013) and international efforts by the United Nations Environment Program have led to the Minamata Convention on Mercury, a global legally binding treaty on mercury controls (UNEP, 2008, 2013, 2014). There is a reasonable consensus on typical background concentrations of atmospheric mercury, which are extremely low. Typical concentrations range from 1.21.4 ng m3 in the Northern Hemisphere and 0.91.2 ng m3 in the Southern Hemisphere and appear to be decreasing (Slemr et al., 2011; Sprovieri et al., 2016) (1 ng m3 is 3106 atoms cm3 or 120 ppq (parts

per quadrillion)). Until recently it has been accepted that most of the mercury found in the boundary layer is elemental mercury, Hg(0) (Lindberg et al., 2007). Oxidized or reactive gaseous mercury (RGM), normally assumed to be in the Hg(II) oxidation state, has not been chemically identied and is thought to constitute a very small fraction of the total mercury concentration, although recent work (Gustin et al., 2013; Ambrose et al., 2013) challenges this view. Our overall understanding of the atmospheric chemistry of mercury and the detailed elementary chemical reactions that oxidize Hg(0) is poor (Lin et al., 2006; Hynes et al., 2009; Subir et al., 2011, 2012), and the uncertainty of both the chemical identity and measurements of speciated oxidized mercury places few constraints on models. Atmospheric measurements of mercury represent a signicant challenge in ultra-trace analytical chemistry and the issues associated with current techniques have been discussed by Gustin and Jaffe (2010). We have developed a laser-based sensor for the detection of Hg(0) using sequential two-photon laser-induced uorescence (2P-LIF) (Bauer et al., 2002, 2014).The instrument is capable of fast in situ measurement of Hg(0) at ambient levels. By incorporating pyrolysis to convert RGM and particulate mercury to Hg(0), it is possible to measure total mercury (TM, i.e., the sum of Hg(0) plus gas-phase and particulate bound oxidized mercury) and hence to measure total oxidized mercury (TOM, i.e., the sum of gas-phase and particulate bound oxidized mercury) by difference. The Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment (RAMIX) offered an opportunity to deploy the 2P-LIF instrument as part of an informal eld intercomparison at the University of Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station (Gustin et al., 2013; Ambrose et al., 2013; Finley et al., 2013). RAMIX was an attempt to intercompare new Hg measurement systems with two Tekran 2537/1130/1135 systems. This is the instrumentation that is currently in use for the overwhelming majority of atmospheric Hg measurements. Participants included the University of Washington (UW), University of Houston (UH), Desert Research Institute (DRI), University of Nevada Reno (UNR) and the University of Miami (UM). The specic goals for the project were to

1. compare ambient measurements of gaseous elemental mercury, Hg(0), gaseous oxidized mercury (RGM) and particulate bound mercury (PBM) by multiple groups for 4 weeks;

2. examine the response of all systems to spikes of Hg(0) and HgBr2;

3. examine the response of all systems to Hg(0) in the presence of the potentially interfering compounds of ozone and water vapor; and

4. analyze the data to quantify the level of agreement and the results of interference and calibration tests for each measurement system.

In practice, the instrument operated by UH only measured Hg(0) for the rst week of the campaign, and the cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS) instrument deployed by DRI did not produce any data. Hence, RAMIX was primarily an intercomparison of the UM 2P-LIF instrument, the UW Detector for Oxidized Hg Species (DOHGS) that is based on two Tekran 2537 instruments, and a Tekran 2537 and two 2537/1130/1135 speciation systems deployed by UNR. Under these circumstances, we were not able to compare 2PLIF measurements made at high temporal resolution with the CRDS instrument. It did allow us to compare the 2P-LIF sensor with independently operated instruments that use pre-concentration on gold, coupled with analysis by cold vapor atomic uorescence spectroscopic (CVAFS), and to examine potential interference effects. Our focus here is to compare the short-term variation in GEM on the timescale that the CVAFS instruments operate, 5 min samples, and ex

amine the ability of the different instruments to capture this variation. In addition, we made measurements of TM, and hence TOM by difference, and also employed manual denuder measurements to attempt to measure RGM directly.In prior publications, Gustin et al. (2013) and Ambrose et al. (2013) provide their interpretation of the RAMIX results and their conclusions have very signicant implications for our understanding of atmospheric mercury chemistry. In this work, we offer a contrasting view with different conclusions.

2 Experimental

2.1 RAMIX intercomparison

A detailed description of the RAMIX location and the local meteorology was provided by Gustin et al. (2013). The original RAMIX proposal included participation from the Tekran Corporation to build and test a eld-deployed, high-ow-sampling manifold that could be reliably spiked with 10100 ppq of RGM. Tekran proposed to supply both RGM and Hg(0) spiking using independent generators that were traceable to NIST standards and would be independent of the detection systems being evaluated. However, due to time

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 467

constraints, Tekran believed that it was unlikely that the manifold and ultra-trace spiking system could be manufactured and fully tested to their standards, so they declined to participate in RAMIX (E. C. Prestbo, personal communication, 2015). Instead, the UW group stepped in to supply and operate the sampling manifold and spiking system, and the details of its characterization are provided in Finley et al. (2013).During the RAMIX campaign, the 2P-LIF instrument sampled on 18 days, typically sampling for between 4 and 6 h.The longest period of continuous sampling lasted for 26 h and occurred on 1 and 2 September. Over this 18-day period, we sampled from the RAMIX manifold and, in addition, at the end of the campaign, we sampled ambient air independently and also attempted to measure TOM by pyrolyzing the sample air and measuring the difference between Hg(0) and TM. We also sampled RGM using KCl-coated annular denuders using LIF for real-time analysis.

2.2 The 2P-LIF system

Bauer et al. (2002, 2003, 2014) provide a description of the operating principles of the 2P-LIF instrument. Bauer et al. (2014) provide a detailed description of the 2P-LIF instrument deployed at RAMIX, including the sampling congurations, data processing, calibration and linearity tests together with examples of experimental data. In summary, the system uses sequential two-photon excitation of two atomic transitions in Hg(0) followed by detection of blue-shifted LIF. The instrumental conguration at RAMIX utilized an initial excitation of the Hg 63P161S0 transition at 253.7 nm, followed by excitation to the 71S0 level via the 71S063P1 transition at 407.8 nm. Both radiative decay and collisional energy transfer produce population in the 61P1 level. Blue-shifted uorescence was then observed on the strong 61P161S0 transition at 184.9 nm using a solar-blind photomultiplier tube (PMT). By using a solar-blind tube that is insensitive to laser scatter at the excitation wavelengths, very high sensitivity is possible. The use of narrowband excitation of two atomic transitions followed by detection of laser-induced uorescence at a third wavelength precludes the detection of any species other than Hg(0). The 2P-LIF instrument requires calibration, so Hg(0) was also measured with a Tekran 2537B using its internal permeation source as an absolute calibration. We sampled from the RAMIX manifold, which was below ambient pressure, through 25 ft ( 7.5 m) of 0.25 in

(6.35 mm diameter) in Teon tubing. No lter was placed on the sampling line to attempt to remove ambient RGM or the HgBr2 spikes that were periodically added to the sample ow. The sampling line was not heated and was not shielded from the sun. The original RAMIX plan called for all instruments to be located close to the manifold for optimal sampling. Unfortunately, the positioning of the trailers at the actual site precluded this and forced us to use a long sampling line. As a result, the internal pump on our Tekran was not able to draw the 1.5 SLPM required for sampling and an aux-

iliary pump was placed on the Tekran exhaust to boost the ow. Under atmospheric conditions, the 2P-LIF instrument cannot detect RGM so, in principle, this does not need to be removed from the sample gas. However, deposition of RGM on the sampling lines followed by heterogeneous reduction to GEM could produce measurement artifacts. The limit of detection for Hg(0) during RAMIX was 30 pg m3 for a

10 s or 100-shot average.

2.3 Measurements of TM and TOM

We attempted to use the 2P-LIF instrument to measure TM, and hence TOM by difference. Although we have routinely used this approach to convert HgCl2 and HgBr2 to Hg(0) in the laboratory, this was our rst attempt to measure total oxidized mercury at ambient concentrations. A second sampling line was attached to the RAMIX manifold and a pyrolyzer was located directly at the manifold sampling port. The pyrolyzer consisted of an 0.6 cm o.d. quartz tube, 15 cm

in length and partially lled with quartz wool. Wrapped Nichrome wire encompassed an 8 cm section of tube that was heated until the quartz began to glow. The high temperature inside the pyrolyzer reduces both RGM and particulate mercury in the manifold air to Hg(0), which is then monitored by 2P-LIF and gives the sum of oxidized (both gaseous and particulate) and elemental mercury, i.e., TM. Directly sampling from the manifold and measuring ambient Hg(0) then allows the concentration of TOM to be calculated as the difference between the two signals. Both lines were continuously sampled at 10 L min1 and the ow to the uorescence cell was switched between the pyrolyzed and unpyrolyzed sample lines in, typically, 5 min intervals to attempt to track uctuations in [Hg(0)] that would obscure the relatively small signal increase attributable to TOM.

2.4 Manual denuder sampling of RGM

We conducted manual denuder sampling on seven afternoons during the RAMIX campaign to attempt to quantify total RGM. We sampled using both KCl-coated annular denuders and uncoated tubular denuders that were then analyzed using programmable thermal dissociation (Ernest et al., 2014).In both cases, we monitored the Hg(0) that evolved during RGM decomposition, in real time, using single-photon LIF.Only the annular denuder results are presented here. The use of denuder sampling coupled with thermal dissociation has been described by Landis et al. (2002) and is used in the Tekran model 1130 mercury speciation units deployed during RAMIX. Air is pulled through a KCl-coated annular denuder which captures RGM but transmits elemental and particulate mercury. After a period of sampling, typically 1 h, the denuder is ushed with zero-grade air and the denuder is heated to 500 C. The RGM is thermally decomposed, producing elemental mercury that desorbs from the denuder surface and is then captured and analyzed by a Tekran 2537. The

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

468 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

Table 1. RAMIX manual KCl denuder sampling.

Date Sample time Mid-point Sample Blank Time Spec1 Spec2 (uncorr) hours hour pg m3 pg m3 GOM PBM GOM PBM pg m3 pg m3 pg m3 pg m3

9/6 1.5 15 127.9 2.27 13:00 200.7 51.8 205.1 4.3 15:00 65.7 32.0 84.9 6.0

9/7 2 16 112.9 0 14:00 39.8 136.4 94.3 2.521.2 16:00 48.5 177.3 68.9 1.5 285.8 18:00 28.1 182.2 37.4 3.330.6

9/10 3 15.3 74.3 1995 14:00 26.7 10.5 27.4 4.244.2 16:00 24.1 18.3 23.7 2.3

9/13 4 15 12.8 8.2 13:00 0.7 16.9 0.5 16.613.56 17:00 37.6 16.1 25.2 2.7

9/14 4.5 14 39 3.3 12:00 34.9 12.0 23.9 5.517.3 14:00 57. 18.4 26.3 38.6 16:00 42.0 17.4 26.3 4.0

9/15 4.5 15 15.24 1.53 13:00 113.9 39.1 27.6 3.920.4 4.87 15:00 80.6 22.2 17.7 3.9 17:00 110.8 24.1 8.6 8.1

9/16 2.75 16 148 5 08:00 19.7 4.7 14.8 5.4 42 6 09:0026 5 10:00 28.7 13.3 19.9 4.8 47 4

Evidence from temporal decomposition proles (TDPs) for presence of PBM. Measurements for UNR speciation system made at similar times. The Spec2 measurements are uncorrected values. Dates are indicated in mm/dd format.

KCl-coated annular denuders used here were manufactured by URG Corporation and were identical to those described by Landis et al. (2002) for manual sampling. They were located on top of one of the RAMIX instrument trailers a few feet from the entrance to the RAMIX manifold inlet. The denuders sampled at 10 SLPM, they were not heated and the integrated elutriator/acceleration jet and impactor/coupler described by Landis et al. (2002) and incorporated in the model 1100 speciation unit were not placed on the denuder inlet. Hence, no type of particle ltering was used on the inlets. The denuders were cleaned and recoated prior to the RAMIX deployment. Prior to sampling, the denuders were cleaned by heating to 500 C and then bagged and taken to the sampling site. After a period of sampling that varied from 1

to 4 h, the denuders were capped, placed in sealed plastic bags and transported to the analysis lab at the University of Nevada, Reno. On most of the sampling days, a single denuder was opened and then immediately bagged, serving as a eld blank. On the nal 2 days of sampling, denuders were sampled in pairs, i.e., with two denuders connected inline so that the front denuder sampled RGM and the rear denuder served as a blank and monitor of bleedthrough of RGM. The blank concentrations are typically low as shown in Table 1; however, on 10 September, the blank shows a very

high value that is indicative of signicant contamination at some point during the cleaning or sampling process. For the analysis, a ow of helium (He) passed through the denuders and then into a uorescence cell where any Hg(0) in the ow was detected by LIF. The LIF was monitored by two PMTs set to different gains to increase the dynamic range of the detection system. Prior to the analysis, a known amount of mercury was injected into the ow through a septum using a transfer syringe. The syringe sampled from a Tekran model 2505 mercury vapor primary calibration unit. Without disrupting the gas ow, the denuder was then placed in a clamshell tube furnace that had been preheated to 500 C.

The evolution of the Hg(0) was monitored for, typically, 5 10 min and after the LIF signal had returned to baseline, a second calibration injection was performed. A frequency-doubled, Nd:YAG-pumped dye laser was used to excite the Hg(0) 63P161S0 transition at 253.7 nm, and resonance LIF was observed at the same wavelength. In this approach, the detection PMT detects both LIF and laser scatter; hence, sensitivity is limited by the ratio of intensity of the LIF signal to the laser scatter. Since the 63P1 level is efciently quenched by both O2 and N2 (Breckenridge and Unemoto, 2007), the thermal analysis was performed in He buffer gas to achieve good detection sensitivity. The excitation beam then passed

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 469

through a reference cell that contained a steady ow of Hg(0) from a permeation source. The LIF signal from the reference cell served to conrm that the laser output was stable.

3 Results

3.1 RAMIX manifold

As noted above, the RAMIX manifold had to be constructed and tested by the UW group under tight time constraints and details of its characterization are provided in Finley et al. (2013). A critique of the manifold performance has been presented by Prestbo (2016) and we detail some key issues here. The manifold deployed at RAMIX was a different size than the prototype tested in the laboratory. The laboratory manifold showed very large variation in calculated transmission efciencies of Hg(0) after spiking with a permeation source. Finley et al. reported recoveries of 71101 % for short-term spikes. The authors speculate that this was associated with rapid changes in ambient Hg(0) but provide no measurements to support this. The Hg(0) source used for spiking was gravimetrically calibrated by the manufacturer but was not used at the calibration temperature requiring the output to be calibrated by a Tekran 2537B. After the equipment was moved to the RAMIX site, the permeation tube output increased. The authors also acknowledge a signicant uncertainty (15 %) in the RAMIX manifold ow measure

ments that were required to calculate spike concentrations; hence, this is the minimum uncertainty in calculated spike concentrations.

In fact, we nd that several independent measurements of Hg(0) spikes differ by as much as 30 % from the value calculated by the manifold operators, suggesting that (15 %)

underestimates the uncertainty. Because of these considerations, we believe the RAMIX manifold is best treated as a semi-quantitative delivery system that was not well characterized. We do not feel it is appropriate to characterize recoveries as Gustin et al. (2013) have done because of the large uncertainty in Hg(0) spike concentrations. Rather, it is most useful to focus on sampling periods when multiple independent instruments show reasonable agreement.

3.2 UM Tekran performance

In evaluating the rst week of the UM RAMIX measurements, it became clear that there was some nonlinearity in the relative responses of the 2P-LIF and UM Tekran systems and that better agreement was obtained by referencing the Hg(0) concentration to the UNR Tekran. Gustin et al. (2013) concluded that the UNR Tekran, based on the inlet conguration, only measured Hg(0), and they suggested that the UM system, due to the long sampling line, was measuring total gaseous mercury (TGM). We compared the manifold Hg(0) readings from the UM and UNR Tekrans over the rst 260 h in which we took measurements. The absolute concentration

difference relative to the UNR instrument is shown in Fig. 1.

Hour 0 corresponds to 09:00 PDT on 26 August when we started measurements and hour 260 corresponds to midnight on 5 September. Over the rst 24 h, the UM Tekran is offset by 0.5 ng m3 and the offset jumps to 2 ng m3 at

hour 30 on 27 August with the difference decreasing over the next week of measurements in an almost linear fashion.Over most of this period, the UW Tekran did not report Hg(0) measurements other than a small set of measurements on28 August that are offset by 0.5 ng m3 relative to the UNR

Tekran. It can be seen that by hour 250 on 5 September all three instruments had converged. After this period, the agreement between the UW, UNR and UM Tekrans was good until8 September, when the UM instrument became contaminated after a malfunction of our external permeation oven, requiring replacement with a backup Tekran 2537A unit. Both the absolute response and the response factor, i.e., the calibration factor of the UM Tekran, were somewhat unstable during this period and additional details are provided in the Supplement.Our focus during this initial period of the intercomparison was on the two laser systems that were being set up. In retrospect, we can acknowledge that greater attention should have been paid to quality assurance with the UM Tekran. We conclude that the difference between the UM and UNR instruments is an experimental artifact. Problems with instability in the UM Tekran may have been associated with the use of an external pump to supplement the internal Tekran pump or with the fact that the UM instrument had been powered down for almost 1 week and relocated to a site at a signicantly different ambient pressure. It is also noteworthy that the initial abrupt change to a large offset followed by the offsets shown in Fig. 1 occurred prior to the start of the manifold spikes of HgBr2 and cannot be associated with the elevated levels of

HgBr2 that were introduced into the manifold on 5 September. The differences between the instruments cannot, in our view, be indicative of any type of chemistry within our sampling lines, nor can it be indicative of the UM instrument measuring TGM rather than Hg(0).

3.3 2P-LIF measurements

The absolute Hg(0) concentrations reported for the 2P-LIF measurements typically use a single 10 min section of Tekran concentration data to calibrate the 2P-LIF signal and place it on an absolute concentration scale. The complete time series of measurements then gives a long-term comparison of the 2P-LIF and Tekran instrumentation with the absolute 2P-LIF concentrations based on the single 10 min calibration point.

3.3.1 5 September

This was the rst occasion on which the three independent Tekran 2537 instruments and the 2P-LIF system reported simultaneous measurements. The 2P-LIF system sampled from the RAMIX manifold for approximately 6.5 h

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

470 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

Figure 1. Comparison of Hg(0) readings from the UM, UW and UNR Tekrans over the rst 260 h of UM measurements. The absolute concentration difference relative to the UNR instrument is shown in black for the UM Tekran and in red for the DOHGS (UW) Tekran.

from 10:30 to 17:00 PDT. Over the course of the sam

pling period, there were two spikes of Hg(0) lasting 1 and 2 h, respectively. The UW manifold team reported an initial 10:00 PDT Hg(0) spike concentration of 26.5 ng m3 dropping to 24.4 ng m3 over the course of the 1 h spike. The 2 h spike that began at 13:00 PDT was reported to be

12.4 ng m3 dropping to 10.5 ng m3 over the course of 2 h. The ambient airow in the manifold was spiked with HgBr2 for the whole of this sampling period and the reported level of the HgBr2 spike varied between 0.6 and0.7 ng m3. The levels of HgBr2 measured by the DOHGS instrument were consistent with this but the concentrations reported by the UNR speciation units were considerably lower and with a signicant discrepancy between the two speciation units. Figure 2a shows the sequence of Hg(0) measurements from the UNR, UW and UM Tekrans together with the 5 min averages of the 2P-LIF signal. The 2P-LIF instrument began manifold measurements in the middle of the initial 10:00 PDT Hg(0) spike and is scaled to the concentration at this time which all three Tekrans measured as

22.5 ng m3. The three Tekrans agree to better than 5 % during both of the manifold spikes and, based on a pre-spike ambient concentration of 2 ng m3, it suggests that the initial spike concentration was 20.5 ng m3. This suggests that

the reported spike concentration was 2530 % larger than

the actual concentration introduced into the manifold. Figure 2b shows an expanded concentration scale to highlight the nominally ambient measurements. There is some suggestion that it took some time for the spike to be completely removed, particularly after the second spike. At the completion of the second spike, all the instruments drop to ambient but the UNR instrument sees two Hg(0) pulses. Interestingly, these show up with greatly reduced amplitudes in the UW

Figure 2. (a) A 7 h sequence of GEM measurements from5 September that included two manifold spikes. Shown are the sequence of GEM measurements from the UNR, UW and UM Tekrans together with the 5 min averages of the 2P-LIF signal.(b) An expanded concentration scale focusing on ambient measurements.

and UM Tekran signals and also in the 2P-LIF signal. Figure 3 shows the percent difference of the other instruments relative to the UM Tekran, and over most of the sampling period the agreement between all the measurements is better than 10 % over a 7 h period with 5 min sampling resolu

tion. This indicates that the 2P-LIF instrument is capable of stable operation over an extended time period with any drifts being corrected by normalization to the reference cell. Well-calibrated, independently operated Tekrans should be capable of agreement to better than 5 % based on tests performed by the manufacturer and this level of agreement is achieved during subsets of the sampling period. It is not clear if the deviations that are observed, particularly the large deviations seen by the UNR Tekran after the second spike, are related to the presence of elevated levels of HgBr2 or other issues related to manifold operation. The fact that all the instruments observed these Hg(0) pulses suggests that the artifact may be related to a process in the manifold rather than in the UNR sampling line. However, the signicant differences in the magnitude of Hg(0) pulses observed by the different instruments are difcult to rationalize.

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 471

Figure 3. A 7 h measurement period from 5 September. The percent difference of the UNR (black line) and UW (red line) Tekrans and the UM 2P-LIF (green line) measurements relative to the UM Tekran is shown.

3.3.2 1 and 2 September

The UM and UNR systems sampled simultaneously for a 22 h period, offering an opportunity to compare the instruments over an extended sampling period. This sampling also occurred prior to any of the manifold spikes that introduced substantial concentrations of HgBr2 into the manifold and sampling lines. Unfortunately, the UW instrument did not report any measurements during this sampling period. The UM system sampled for 26 h and the complete dataset is described elsewhere (Bauer et al., 2014). This includes a detailed analysis of the short-term, i.e., 110 s, variation in the Hg(0) concentration and the ability of the 2P-LIF system to capture this. Here, we focus on the simultaneous sampling period and the variability that should be resolvable by both of the Tekrans and the 2P-LIF instruments. Figure S1 in the Supplement shows the 24 h sampling period with the 2P-LIF signal calibrated by the UM Tekran concentration at the beginning of hour 13 (i.e., 13:00 PDT on 1 September) and the corresponding measurements from the UNR Tekran. Figure S2 in the Supplement shows the same data with an expanded y axis to highlight the variation in the ambient measurements. All three instruments track each other quite well over the rst 10 h and then measure a nocturnal increase in Hg(0) which shows greater midterm variability in the concentration. The 2P-LIF concentrations are approximately 20 % greater than the Tekran measurements during this period. At hour 33 (i.e., 09:00 PDT on 2 September) there was a manifold spike with a reported concentration of 12.9 ng m3 dropping to 11.9 ng m3 over the course of 1 h. The UNR Tekran is 6 % lower, the UM Tekran is 20 % lower and the 2P-LIF 22 % higher than the calcu

lated spike concentration. Figure S3 shows the same mea-

Figure 4. A 22 h sampling period from 1 and 2 September. Comparison of the UM (red line) and UNR (green line) Tekrans with the UM 2P-LIF (black line) concentrations. The concentrations for each instrument are scaled to force agreement during the second manifold spike at hour 33. These are the data from Fig. S3 with the concentration scale expanded to show only ambient data.

surement set but with all instruments normalized to the second manifold spike at hour 33. Figure 4 shows an expanded y axis, the concentration scale, focusing on the ambient concentration measurements. It is apparent that we now see better agreement between the 2P-LIF and the UNR Tekran but that the UM Tekran lies systematically higher than the UNR Tekran. Figure 5 shows a 3 h subset of the measurements corresponding to 05:0008:00 PDT on the morning of 2 September. The variation between the instruments is greater than 5 % and the short-term variations in the Hg(0) concentration vary between the three instruments. Using either calibration approach we see that all instruments capture both the nocturnal increase in Hg(0) concentration and the greater variability in the signal but that there are differences in the amplitude of the variability.

3.3.3 Hg(0) intercomparison conclusions

Almost all of the measurements of atmospheric concentrations of Hg(0) have been made with CVAFS instrumentation and the majority of those measurements have utilized the Tekran 2537. This work provides the rst extensive comparison of the Tekran 2537 with an instrument that is capable of fast in situ detection of Hg(0) using a completely different measurement technique. Measurements over two extended sampling periods show substantial agreement between the 2P-LIF and Tekran measurements and suggest that all the instruments are primarily measuring the same species. Intercomparison precision of better than 25 % was achievable over an extended sampling period and precision of better than 10 % was achieved for subsets of the sampling period. As we discuss below, it is difcult to determine the extent to

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

472 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

O3 Interference tests

On 7 September, an ozone interference test was conducted by simultaneously spiking the sampling manifold with high concentrations of Hg(0) and ozone. The spike in Hg(0) lasted from 09:00 to 19:30 PDT and there were two ozone spikes, each 2 h in duration. A comparison of the UM, UW and UNR Tekrans and the 2P-LIF signal is shown in Fig. 6. The UW Tekran only measured for a portion of this period but agrees reasonably well with the other Tekrans. The 2P-LIF signal is calibrated by the UM Tekran reading during the initial Hg(0) spike at 09:30 PDT. The 2P-LIF signal was online for 6 min at the beginning of the rst ozone spike and then went ofine for 40 min for instrument adjustments. When the 2P-LIF

came back online, the magnitude of the normalized signal was low relative to the Tekrans. At 13:00 PDT, all three instruments converge and agree well over the course of the second spike. The magnitude of the 2P-LIF signal could have been affected adversely by the adjustments but any reduction in signal should have been compensated by a corresponding change in the reference cell. The elevated levels of ozone were introduced into the manifold by UV irradiation of O2, and adding the O2 / O3 gas mixture directly into the manifold produced a reported 8 % relative increase of O2 levels

in the manifold mixing ratio. As we note above, this additional O2 would absorb some of the 2P-LIF signal but this would be a very small effect. The enhanced quenching by O2 is more difcult to assess but cannot explain the discrepancy between the Tekrans and the 2P-LIF signal. In addition, the agreement during the second ozone spike was good. One possible explanation is that the increase in the O2 mixing ratio was larger than calculated for the rst spike. A second series of O3 spikes were conducted on 13 September when we were attempting to measure total mercury using pyrolysis as described below. The 2P-LIF measurements switched on a 5 min cycle between a pyrolyzed line that would have decomposed all the ozone in the sample and a line containing the ambient air spiked with ozone. There was no difference in the 2P-LIF signal from the two sampling channels again suggesting that O3 has no interference effects.

The changes in the Hg(0) concentration measurements shown in Fig. 6 track the predicted changes in calculated spike concentration. However, the calculated spike concentrations, which are also shown, are 2040 % higher than the actual measurements made by the Tekrans.

3.5 Measurements of TM and TOM

We made attempts to use the 2P-LIF instrument to measure TM, and hence TOM by difference, by sampling through two manifold lines. A pyrolyzer was located at the manifold on one of the sampling lines to measure TM. The other sampling line measured ambient Hg(0). TOM was calculated from the difference in the TM and Hg(0) concentrations, and in this sampling conguration the limit of detection for TOM de-

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

Figure 5. A section of the 22 h sampling period from 1 and2 September. Comparison of the UM (red line) and UNR (green line) Tekrans with the UM 2P-LIF (black line) concentrations. The concentrations for each instrument are scaled to force agreement during the second manifold spike at hour 33. These are the data from Fig. S3 with the concentration scale expanded to show only ambient data between hours 29 and 32.

which interferences from RGM contribute to the differences observed.

3.4 Interference tests

As noted above, one component of the initial RAMIX proposal was an examination of the response of the various sensors to potential interfering compounds HgBr2, O3 and H2O.

An analysis of the 2P-LIF detection approach suggests that at the spike levels employed during the RAMIX campaign, neither HgBr2 nor O3 should have any interference effects.

Changes in the concentration of H2O do affect the 2P-LIF signal because H2O absorbs the 2P-LIF uorescence signal and may quench the uorescence. In addition, O2 also absorbs the 2P-LIF signal and quenches uorescence; thus, a change in the O2 concentration will affect the linearity of the response. We have presented a detailed discussion of these effects (Bauer et al., 2014) including an examination of two types of interferences that have been observed in LIF sensors applied in atmospheric and combustion environments and concluded that these are not potential problems in 2PLIF measurements of atmospheric Hg(0). As we have noted previously (Bauer et al., 2014), condensation in our sampling lines can produce artifacts in Hg(0) concentration measurements. Because of the low humidity in Reno it was not necessary to use any type of cold trap during ambient measurements but we did use a trap during manifold spikes of H2O so our measurements do not address this as a potential interference.

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 473

Figure 6. An ozone interference test on 7 September. A comparison of the UM, UW and UNR Tekrans and the UM-2P-LIF measurements. The expected concentration calculated from the ambient Hg(0) concentration prior to the spike plus the calculated spike concentration is also shown.

pends on the short-term variability in ambient Hg(0), which is signicant and shows a diurnal variation. The pyrolysis system was set up and tested on 12 September. Manifold sampling was conducted on the 13th and 14th, and sampling from the trailer roof occurred on the 15th. We calculated the means of the pyrolysis and ambient channel concentrations and the difference which gives the TOM concentration. We also calculated the standard deviations and standard errors (SEs) and used these errors to calculate in quadrature the 2 SE uncertainty in the derived TOM concentration. However, as discussed below, the errors in the means do not appear to capture the full variability in Hg(0), particularly at shorter sampling times.

3.5.1 14 September

Our most extensive sampling took place on the 14th when we were able to sample for three 2 h periods between 09:00

and 20:00 PDT. On this day, there were multiple manifold spikes of HgBr2 and also an Hg(0) spike, and we have a made a detailed analysis of the data for each sampling period.

The third sampling period, which included a large HgBr2 spike, provided the only denitive opportunity to demonstrate the capability of 2P-LIF coupled with pyrolysis to measure oxidized mercury. The third sampling period began at 17:10 PDT during a manifold HgBr2 spike that

began at 17:00 PDT. A short Hg(0) spike was also introduced at 18:00 PDT. Figure 7 shows the 2P-LIF signals from the ambient and pyrolyzed sampling lines together with the means and 1 standard deviation. The UM Tekran was ofine at this time and so the 2P-LIF concentrations are calibrated by the concentrations reported by the UNR Tekran at the beginning of the Hg(0) spike, which are also shown. Both the UNR Tekran and UW Tekran report very similar

Figure 7. Measurements from 14 September, hours 1719 (17:00 19:00 PDT). The background-subtracted 2P-LIF signals from the ambient (black) and pyrolyzed (red) sampling lines are shown. The gaps correspond to times when the laser was blocked to check power and background. The means and 1 standard deviation of each sample are shown. The absolute Hg(0) concentrations are obtained by scaling the ambient Hg(0) signal to the absolute Hg(0) concentration reported by the UNR Tekran during the Hg(0) manifold spike.

Hg(0) concentrations during the Hg(0) spike. Both systems report an Hg(0) concentration of 6.7 ng m3 at the beginning of the spike which, since the pre-spike concentration was 1.9 ng m3, corresponds to a spike concentration of

4.8 ng m3. This is lower than the calculated spike concentration of 6.1 ng m3 reported by the manifold operators and suggests that the calculated spike was 27 % higher than

the actual spike concentration introduced into the manifold.

Figure 8 shows the means of each set of ambient and pyrolyzed measurements together with the 2 variation and2 SEs of the mean. Figure 9 shows the TOM concentrations calculated from the difference together with 2 SEs in the TOM concentration. The reported spike concentrations and DOHGS measurements are also shown. During the initial sampling period between 17:10 and 17:50 PDT the

2P-LIF pyrolysis measurements do not show evidence for an HgBr2 spike. Taking the difference between the ambient and pyrolyzed measurements during this period, we obtain [TOM] = 0.05 0.05 ng m3. Shortly before the intro

duction of the Hg(0) spike, we see clear evidence for an increase in the Hg(0) concentration in the pyrolysis sample relative to the ambient sample. We speculate that the manifold adjustments that were made to introduce the additional Hg(0) spike produced either a change in the ow or some other change in the manifold conditions that allowed the HgBr2 spike to reach our pyrolyzer, which, as mentioned above, was located at the manifold. This difference between the two 2PLIF signals is clearly evident by inspection of Fig. 7. Figure 9 shows that the TOM concentration, which should consist almost exclusively of HgBr2, is signicantly larger than

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

474 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

Figure 8. The 14 September measurements, hours 1719. The means of the ambient channel (black) and pyrolyzed channel (red) are shown. The error bars show both 2 standard errors (thicker line) and 2 standard deviations.

both the reported HgBr2 spike concentration and the concentrations reported by the DOHGS system which are in perfect agreement. Taking the difference between the ambient and pyrolyzed measurements for 18:0018:21 PDT we obtain [TOM] = 1.20 0.17 ng m3 with 2 SE uncertainty. It is

important to note again that the calculated Hg(0) spike concentration is 27 % larger than the measured concentration. This large difference is most likely due to errors in the ows or the permeation source output but it suggests that little condence can be placed in the calculated concentration of the HgBr2 spike. In addition, it is clear that the DOHGS measurements show a different temporal prole of TOM. The DOHGS system reports TOM concentrations that agree almost exactly with the calculated spike concentration at the beginning of the spike period and drop to a very low background level that is below the detection limit at the end of the reported spike period. In contrast, the 2P-LIF measurements do not show an increased TOM concentration until shortly before the introduction of the Hg(0) spike and they take 20 min to drop to background levels. The UNR spe

ciation systems sample for 1 h and this is followed by a 1 h analysis period so they produce a single hourly average every 2 h. During this period, the UNR speciation system Spec1 sampled for 20 min during the spike period and then for a

further 40 min. Spec2 was sampling ambient air outside the manifold.

Figure S4 shows the 7 s average of the 2P-LIF signal from the ambient and pyrolysis sample lines for the rst sampling period at 08:0010:27 PDT together with the mean and 1 standard deviation (1) variation in the 2P-LIF signals. Figure S5 shows the means together with the 2 variation and 2 SEs of the mean. It is clear that there is signicant short-term variability in the ambient Hg(0) concentration. Figure S6 shows the TOM concentrations calculated from the difference between the pyrolyzed and ambient channels together

Figure 9. TOM concentrations calculated from the difference between the pyrolyzed and ambient sample concentrations together with 2 SEs in the TOM concentrations. The reported HgBr2 spike concentrations and DOHGS measurements are also shown.

Figure 10. KCl manual denuder measurements from 16 September.

The raw data for the TDPs for the denuder D1 are shown.

with the calculated 2 SEs in the TOM concentration. The reported spike concentration is also shown. If we take the means of the 2P-LIF ambient and pyrolysis measurements during the reported spike period we obtain ambient values of2.06 0.05 ng m3 and pyrolyzed values of 2.21 0.03 ng

m3, giving a TOM concentration of 0.145 0.05 ng m3.

The 2P-LIF measurements are consistent with the detection of TOM but they are much lower than the calculated spike and DOHGS measurements shown in Fig. 10.

Figures S7S9 show the corresponding plots for the second sampling period from 12:1214:00 PDT. The alternat

ing sampling between the ambient and pyrolysis channels is more even and Fig. S7 shows that there is still variability in ambient Hg(0). The means of all the samples give ambient values of 1.72 0.02 ng m3 and pyrolyzed values

of 1.70 0.02 ng m3. If we take the subset of measure

ments that coincide with the reported spike we obtain am-

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 475

bient values of 1.79 0.02 ng m3 and pyrolyzed values of

1.77 0.02 ng m3. In this case, the 2P-LIF measurements

do not detect HgBr2 and are not consistent with the reported spike or DOHGS measurements.

Figures S10 and S11 show the averages of the TOM concentrations from the 2P-LIF system together with the measurements from the UNR speciation systems, the reported spike concentrations and 5 min DOHGS concentrations. During this sampling period, Spec1 sampled from the RAMIX manifold while Spec2 sampled ambient air outside the manifold. Gustin et al. (2013) detailed problems with the response of the Spec2 system and applied a 70 % correction that is also shown as Spec2 corrected. Because both the DOHGS and 2P-LIF pyrolysis systems are expected to measure the sum of gaseous (RGM) and particulate (PBM) oxidized mercury, we have plotted the sum of the RGM and PBM concentrations from the speciation systems. They are plotted at the midpoint of the 1 h sampling period.

Over most of the measurement period, the 2P-LIF pyrolysis and Spec1 measurements are consistent and lower than the DOHGS measurements. The exception is the large spike in TOM seen by the 2P-LIF system at hour 18. The spike occurred during the initial portion of Spec1 sampling and, although it measures an increase in RGM relative to Spec2, the magnitude is not consistent with the 2P-LIF pyrolysis observations.

3.5.2 13 September

13 September was the rst day we were able to sample with the pyrolysis system and we sampled over a period of 5 h. The only manifold spike during this period was an O3 spike at 13:00 PDT that lasted 1 h, so the speciation instruments were attempting to measure ambient RGM. Figure S12 shows averages of TOM concentrations as measured by the 2P-LIF pyrolysis system together with the hourly averages as measured by the DOHGS and UNR speciation instruments.The x axis error shows the duration of the 2P-LIF measurements together with 2 SE y axis error bars. Two of the averages of the 2P-LIF measurement give a physically unrealistic negative concentration suggesting that combining the 2 SEs in the means of the ambient and pyrolyzed channels underestimates the uncertainty in the TOM measurement.

3.5.3 15 September

On 15 September, we sampled from the trailer roof using the same sampling lines and again alternating between the pyrolyzed and unpyrolyzed channels. Figure S13 shows the averages of the 2P-LIF signal from the ambient and pyrolysis channels together with the concentrations measured by the Spec2 system that was sampling ambient air outside the manifold. The concentration obtained from the UM denuder samples described below are also shown. The UW DOHGS and Spec1 systems were sampling from the RAMIX mani-

fold with continuous HgBr2 spiking during this period. We see some evidence for measurable RGM in the rst hour of the measurements and this is not seen by Spec2. Later measurements show no evidence for measurable RGM concentrations.

3.6 Limits of 2P-LIF detection of TOM

As we have noted above, our limit of detection of TOM depends on the short-term variability in the ambient Hg(0) concentration because we use a single uorescence cell and switch between pyrolysis and ambient channels. We have attempted to give an estimate of the uncertainty by taking 2 SEs of the means and combining the errors in quadrature to get an estimate of the uncertainty in the TOM concentration.If the mean of the ambient Hg(0) concentration is not uctuating signicantly on the timescale of channel switching, this approach should give an accurate estimate of the uncertainty in TOM. In fact, our Hg(0) observations show that the uctuations in the Hg(0) concentration show a signicant diurnal variation, with large uctuations at night, decreasing over the course of morning hours and being smallest in the afternoon. This can be seen in the long-term sampling from 1 and 2 September and in the observations from 14 September. The observation of statistically signicant but physically unrealistic negative TOM concentrations on 13 September may be explained by this. Such an artifact could be produced by contamination in the Teon valve-switching system that alternates the ow to the uorescence cell. This type of contamination should produce a constant bias that is not actually observed. It appears that the short-term variability in Hg(0) concentration produces a small bias in some cases that is not averaged out by switching between the ambient and pyrolyzed channels. For example, on 13 September the initial sample period of 1 h and 12 min gives an RGM concentration of 0.06 0.10 ng m3 while two shorter sampling periods at

10:30 PDT (36 min sample) and 13:30 PDT (12 min sample) give 0.15 0.09 ng m3. Our results suggest that the use of a

single detection channel with switching between ambient and pyrolyzed samples is not adequate to resolve the small concentration differences that are necessary to be able to monitor ambient TOM. It is essential to set up two detection systems, one continuously monitoring ambient Hg(0) and the other continuously monitoring a pyrolyzed sample stream giving TM, to get the precision needed to monitor ambient TOM.Over most of the measurement periods, our results are consistent with the lower TOM values reported by the UNR speciation instruments, although there is a large uncertainty in the concentrations that is actually difcult to quantify. In addition, it is important to emphasize that this was our rst attempt to use the pyrolysis approach to attempt to measure TOM. It is possible that the pyrolyzer was not working efciently on 13 September. The results from 14 September are more difcult to rationalize. The 2P-LIF pyrolysis system has the sensitivity to detect the much higher values of RGM

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

476 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

reported by the DOHGS system and the reported spike concentrations of HgBr2. At higher concentrations, as shown in

Fig. 9, the 2P-LIF system can monitor HgBr2 with 10 min

time resolution. Our results, however, cannot be reconciled with those reported by the DOHGS system or the spike concentrations reported by the UW manifold team.

3.7 Manual denuder measurements

As we describe above, our use of manual denuders was similar to that described by Landis et al. (2002) with the exception that we did not incorporate the integrated elutriator/acceleration jet and impactor/coupler on the denuder inlet and the denuders were not heated. Landis et al. (2002) suggest that HgCl2 is quantitatively transported through the manual denuder elutriator/impactor inlet when properly heated. In later work, Feng et al. (2003) reported that such impactors could reduce the efciency of RGM collection, although in that work there is no reference to the temperature of the impactor. In this work, no type of particle ltering was used on the inlets. In addition, we used single-photon LIF to monitor the evolution of Hg(0) in real time as the RGM decomposed on the hot denuder surface during oven analysis.The analysis was carried out in He buffer gas and the Hg(0) concentration was calibrated by manual injections. The rst series of measurements, i.e., 614 September involved single denuder sampling. On the 15th and 16th, we employed tandem sampling with two denuders in series to assess the extent of RGM bleedthrough. We used two sets of denuders on the 15th and four sets of denuders on the 16th. Figure 10 shows the raw data for a denuder analysis showing the pre-heat Hg(0) calibration injections and the temporal prole of the Hg(0) LIF signal for one of the 16 September samples, denuder 1. The two traces correspond to the two monitoring PMTs set at different gains to increase the dynamic range of the measurements. Figure 11 shows the calibrated prole for the same denuder together with the blank, i.e., the trailing denuder. The complete set of manual denuder data together with corresponding values for the UNR speciation units that are closest in sampling time are shown in Table 1. Sampling occurred on denuders 1, 4, 6 and 7. The trailing denuders, which we have treated as blanks, are denuders 3, 5, 8 and9. The advantage of monitoring the RGM decomposition in real time is shown in the 16 September data. The temporal decomposition proles (TDPs) for three of the denuders are shown in Fig. 11, and Figs. S14 and S15 show reasonable agreement both in absolute concentration of Hg(0) and the time for decomposition to occur. The fourth denuder sample, Fig. S16, is a factor of 45 higher in concentration and decomposes on a longer timescale with signicant structure in the TDP. Comparing the TDPs for all eight denuders, it is clear that the TDP for denuder 7, which shows the anomalously high value, is very different from the TDPs for the other three sample denuders. We believe that this TDP is associated with particulate mercury that has impacted on the

Figure 11. KCl manual denuder measurements from 16 September.

The calibrated TDPs for the tandem denuder pair, D1 and D3, are shown.

denuder wall and decomposes on a slower timescale giving a very different temporal prole from RGM that was deposited on the denuder wall. Table 1 shows the values of RGM obtained from denuder analysis together with an indication of impact from a PBM component. We have also included measurements from the UNR speciation systems that overlap with, or are close to, the times when our measurements were made. We draw several conclusions from the measurements. The values we obtain from simultaneous measurements that are not inuenced by the presence of PBM agree reasonably well with each other, are broadly consistent with the values reported by the Tekran speciation systems and are typically much lower than the values from the UW DOHGS system. Two sets of tandem denuder measurements from 15 and 16 September indicate that there is not a signicant level of bleedthrough onto the trailing denuders.This suggests that the large differences between the DOHGS system and the UNR speciation systems are not due to specic problems with the RAMIX manifold or the speciation systems deployed at RAMIX, even though Spec2 was not functioning properly, as documented by Gustin et al. (2013).The tandem sampling also demonstrates that any denuder artifact is not a result of some type of bleedthrough artifact that is preventing RGM from being quantitatively captured by the rst denuder. These results are consistent with prior work by Landis et al. (2002) and Feng et al. (2003). It is also noteworthy that the manually sampled denuders were at ambient temperature in contrast to the speciation denuders that were held at 50 C. Hence, the absolute sampling humidities are similar but the relative humidities are very different. Finally, we suggest that there is value in monitoring RGM decomposition in real time as diagnostic of particulate impact when utilizing the annular denuders without the impactor inlet designed to remove coarse particulate matter that may be retained due to gravitational settling.

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 477

4 Implications of RAMIX results

We think a realistic assessment of the RAMIX results is imperative because the interpretation of the RAMIX data and the conclusions presented by Gustin et al. (2013) and Ambrose et al. (2013) have enormous implications for both our understanding of current experimental approaches to atmospheric sampling of mercury species and for the chemistry itself. Speciation systems using KCl denuder sampling are widely used in mercury monitoring networks worldwide to measure RGM concentrations and the Gustin et al. (2013) and Ambrose et al. (2013) papers suggest these results greatly underestimate RGM concentrations with no clear way to assess the degree of bias.

4.1 Intercomparison of Hg(0)

The assessment of the Hg(0) measurements is a little different in the two papers with Ambrose et al. (2013), noting that comparisons between the DOHGS and participating Hg instruments demonstrate good agreement for GEM where GEM refers to Hg(0), and they found a mean spike recovery of 86 % for the DOHGS measurements of Hg(0), based on comparisons between measured and calculated spike concentrations. Gustin et al. (2013) suggest that the UM Tekran agreed well with measurements of TM reported by the DOHGS system and they hypothesize that the long exposed Teon line connected to the UM Tekran unit provided a setting that promoted conversion of RM to GEM, or that RM was transported efciently through this line and quantied by the Tekran system. The latter seems unlikely given the system conguration. . . , where RM refers to reactive mercury. As we note above, we believe that the best explanation for discrepancies between the UM and UNR Tekrans is an experimental issue with the UM Tekran response during the initial period of sampling. We would suggest that data from5 September, one of the few occasions when data from multiple instruments agreed over an extended period, are not compatible with either transmission or inline reduction of RGM in our sampling line. What is also signicant from these data is the very large discrepancy between the spike concentrations as measured independently by three different Tekran systems and conrmed by the relative response of the 2PLIF measurements and the calculated spike concentration.The discrepancy, on the order of 2530 %, is larger than the manifold uncertainties suggested by Finley et al. (2013). We note other examples of the measured Hg(0) spikes being signicantly lower than the calculated concentrations. In prior work, we have shown that both the Tekran and 2P-LIF systems show excellent agreement over more than 3 orders of magnitude in concentration when monitoring the variation in Hg(0) in an N2 diluent. It is to be expected therefore that the recovery of high-concentration spikes should show good agreement between the different instruments as observed in the 5 September data. The difference between the observa-

tions and the calculated manifold spike concentrations is, we would suggest, a reection of the signicant uncertainty in the calculated manifold spike concentration and is not a reection of reactive chemistry removing Hg(0). In addition, random uncertainties in the ow calculations should not produce a consistently low bias relative to the calculated spike concentrations. As we note above in Sect. 3.1, Ambrose et al. (2013) report an increase in the output of their Hg(0) permeation tube after the move to the RAMIX site but this assumes that their Tekran calibration is accurate. The results are consistent with their Tekran measuring too high an output from the permeation device. This is signicant if the same Tekran is being used to calibrate the output of the HgBr2.

A more difcult issue is the question of resolving the differences in the temporal variation of ambient Hg(0) at the 5 min timescale as captured by the different instruments. The Tekran systems should be in agreement with a precision of better than 5 % and the 2P-LIF system, with a much faster temporal resolution and detection limit, should be capable of matching this. The differences here are not consistently associated with a single instrument, for example, with the 2P-LIF having some systematic offset with respect to the CVAFS systems. The extent to which the larger (i.e., larger than 5 %) observed discrepancy which ranged from 10 to 25 % is a result of interferences or simply a reection of instrument precision is difcult to assess. We note again that the UM instruments had to sample through a very long sampling line and we expect that oxidized mercury is deposited on the sampling line. However, it is not possible to assess the extent to which oxidized mercury is reduced back to its elemental form introducing small artifacts. As we suggest below, an intercomparison of instrument response to variation in Hg(0) concentrations in a pure N2 diluent with the Hg(0) concentration varying between 1 and 3 ng m3 would provide a denitive baseline measurement of the instrument intercomparison precision and accuracy. We suggest that such a measurement is a critical component of any future intercomparison of mercury instrumentation.

4.2 Comparison of total oxidized mercury

To the best of our knowledge, RAMIX is the only experiment that has measured ambient TOM using multiple independent techniques. It should again be emphasized that the TOM measurements using pyrolysis with 2P-LIF detection were the rst attempt to perform such measurements and the use of a single-channel detection system introduced large uncertainties into the measurements. The very large discrepancies between the measurements of TOM reported by the DOHGS system, the Tekran speciation systems and the limited number of 2P-LIF pyrolyzer measurements are the most problematic aspect of the RAMIX measurement suite. Work prior to RAMIX suggested a potential ozone and/or humidity interference in the operation of KCl-coated annular denuders and a number of studies since have also reported such an ef-

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

478 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

W1

Figure 12. The ozone concentration and absolute humidity for a 35 h sampling period on 13 and 14 September that included two ozone spikes and only sampled ambient TOM.

fect (Lyman et al., 2010; McClure et al., 2014). Typically, however, the differences between the RAMIX measurements are large and are not germane to the differences between the DOHGS and 2P-LIF pyrolyzer measurements. The Supplement gures give an example of the differences between the DOHGS measurements and the denuder and 2P-LIF measurements. Ambrose et al. (2013) note that the DOHGS measurements were, on average, 3.5 times larger than those reported by the Spec1 system and summarize the comparison with denuder measurements as follows: These comparisons demonstrate that the DOHGS instrument usually measured RM concentrations that were much higher than, and weakly correlated with those measured by the Tekran Hg speciation systems, both in ambient air and during HgBr2 spiking tests.

The discrepancy of a factor of 3.5 is an average value but, for example, examining the 14 September data at 05:00 PDT,

the DOHGS system is measuring in excess of 500 pg m3 compared with 20 pg m3 measured by the speciation sys

tems, a factor of 25 difference. At this point, the Hg(0) concentration was 3 ng m3 so, based on the DOHGS mea

surements, oxidized mercury is 15 % of the total mercury

concentration. A recent study by McClure et al. (2014) provided a quantitative assessment of the extent to which ozone and humidity impact the recovery of HgBr2 on KCl recovery.

They note that although they provide a recovery equation to compare with other studies, they do not recommend use of this equation to correct ambient data until more calibration results become available. In Fig. 12, we show the ozone concentration and absolute humidity for a 35 h sampling period on 13 and 14 September that included two ozone spikes and only sampled ambient TOM. Figure 13 shows the expected denuder recovery based on the formula determined by Mc-Clure et al. (2014) which varies between a typical value of

70 % dropping to 50 % during the ozone spikes. The g

ure also shows the reported recoveries, i.e., the ratio of RGM

Figure 13. Expected denuder recovery based on the formula determined by McClure et al. which varies between a typical value of

70 % dropping to 50 % during the ozone spikes. The gure also

shows the reported recoveries, i.e., the ratio of RGM as measured by either the UNR speciation systems or the 2P-LIF system divided by the value reported by the DOHGS system.

as measured by either the UNR speciation systems or the 2PLIF system divided by the value reported by the DOHGS system. These values are typically much lower than those predicted by the McClure recovery expression. In addition, on13 September and for most of the 14th, the 2P-LIF pyrolysis system sees little or no evidence for high spike concentrations of HgBr2 but records levels that uctuate around those reported by the speciation systems. The one exception is the spike at hour 18 on 14 September.

We suggest that the ability of the 2P-LIF pyrolysis system to monitor large spike concentrations is shown by the measurements during the 14 September HgBr2 spike at hour 18.

The evidence for an enhancement in the pyrolyzed sample stream is observable in the raw 7 s averaged data and becomes clear taking 5 min averages. The absolute value of the pyrolyzed enhancement is obtained relative to the concentration of the Hg(0) during the spike taken from the measurements by the UNR Tekran that are in excellent agreement with the DOHGS Hg(0) values. The 2P-LIF measurements show a signicantly larger HgBr2 concentration and a different temporal prole compared with the DOHGS instrument. In particular, it is very difcult to rationalize the difference between the 2P-LIF and DOHGS systems during the rst hour of the spike. We would suggest it is difcult to make the case that both instruments are measuring the same species. It is clear that the 2P-LIF pyrolyzer is operating efciently based on the clear observation of TOM at the end of the spike. We again note that the 2P-LIF system is not sensitive to TOM. It is important to note that the DOHGS instrument requires an inline RGM scrubber to remove RGM before the measurement of Hg(0). This inline scrubber utilizes deposition on uncoated quartz wool and the results of Ambrose et al. (2013) imply that while uncoated quartz cap-

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

rected Spec2. These differences are the basis of the conclusions of Gustin et al. (2013) that On the basis of collective assessment of the data, we hypothesize that reactions forming RM (reactive mercury) were occurring in the manifold (Gustin et al., 2013, abstract). Later they state The same two denuders, coated by the same operator, were used from 2 to 13 September, and these were switched between instruments on 9 September. Prior to switching the slope for the equation comparing GOM as measured by Spec1 vs. Spec2 adjusted was 1.7 (r2 = 0.57, p < 0.5, n = 76) after switch

ing this was 1.2 (r2 = 0.62, p < 0.05, n = 42). This indi

cates that although there may have been some systematic bias between denuders Spec2 adjusted consistently measured more GOM than Spec1. We hypothesize that this trend is due to production of RM in the manifold (discussed later).If reactions in the manifold were producing RM then this production would surely have resulted in the DOHGS measuring articially high, i.e., higher than ambient, concentrations of oxidized mercury. However, the paper by Ambrose et al. (2013) (written by a subset of the authors of Gustin et al., 2013) makes no mention of manifold production of oxidized mercury. In fact, Ambrose et al. (2013) state in the Supplement to their paper, The same two denuders, prepared by the same operator, were used in the Tekran Hg speciation systems from 2 to 13 September. The denuders were switched between Spec1 and Spec2 on 9 September. From 2 to 9 September, the Spec1-GOM / Spec2-GOM linear regression slope was 1.7 (r2 = 0.57; p < 0.05; n = 76); from

9 to 13 September the Spec1-GOM/Spec2-GOM slope was1.2 (r2 = 0.62; p < 0.05; n = 42). These results suggest that

the precisions of the GOM measurements made with Spec1 and Spec2 were limited largely by inconsistent denuder performance.

The oxidized mercury concentrations presented by Ambrose et al. (2013) for the RAMIX measurements suggest a well-dened diurnal prole that peaks at night. It is important to note that the error bars on this prole (Fig. 3 of Ambrose et al., 2013) are 1 standard error rather than 1 standard deviation. The standard deviations, which actually give an indication of the range of concentrations measured show much larger errors indicating signicant day-to-day variation in these proles. Nevertheless, the measurements show much larger oxidized mercury concentrations than the speciation systems and the very limited number of 2P-LIF measurements. As we note below, there is no known or hypothesized chemistry that can reasonably explain the large RGM concentrations seen by the DOHGS instrument. Both Gustin et al. (2013) and Ambrose et al. (2013) draw some conclusions about the chemistry of mercury that have signicant implications for atmospheric cycling. Gustin et al. (2013) suggest in their abstract that On the basis of collective assessment of the data, we hypothesize that reactions forming RM were occurring in the manifold. Later, in a section on Implications, they conclude The lack of recovery of the HgBr2 spike suggests manifold reactions were removing this form

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 479

tures RGM efciently in the presence of O3, quartz with a KCl coating promotes efcient reduction to Hg(0).

It is also reasonable to question the extent to which the Tekran speciation systems operated at RAMIX reect the performance of these systems when normally operated under recommended protocols. As noted above, the operation of the RAMIX manifold and the Tekran speciation systems has been questioned by Prestbo (2016). In our view, the two most signicant issues are the performance of the two 2537 mercury analyzers associated with each speciation system and the reduced sampling rate. The performance of the two 2537 units is detailed in Gustin et al. (2013) and, as they noted, there was a signicant response in each instrument. Examination of Fig. S6 of Gustin et al. (2013) shows the relative responses of the two instruments, and, using concentrations up to 25 ng m3, i.e., manifold spikes, they list a regression of 0.72[Hg(0)] + 0.08, whereas for the non-spike data they

obtain 0.62[Hg(0)] + 0.25. Their Table S5 lists the regression

including spikes as 0.7 (0.01) + 0.2, with all concentrations

expressed in ng m3. When considering the use of these analyzers to monitor oxidized mercury, the important factor to consider is the loading on the gold cartridge. Their Table S3 lists the mean RGM concentrations from manifold sampling as 52 pg m3 for Spec1 and 56 pg m3 for Spec2. For a 1 h sample at 4 L min1, this corresponds to a cartridge loading of 13 pg. This is similar to the cartridge loading for sampling a concentration of 0.6 ng m3 at 4 L min1 for 5 min.

If we examine Fig. S6 of Gustin et al. (2013), we see that the regression analyses are based on concentrations higher than 0.6 ng m3, i.e., higher cartridge loadings. At concentrations of 0.6 ng m3 the ratio of Spec2 : Spec1 obtained from these regressions would be 1.05, 0.85 and 1.06 depending on which regression formula is used. We should note that based on Table S6 of Gustin et al. (2013), the median RGM concentrations in manifold sampling were 41 and 46 pg m3. The

RGM concentrations for free-standing sampling were even lower with means of 26 and 19 pg m3 and medians of 23 and 14 pg m3 for Spec1 and Spec2, respectively. For concentrations below 40 pg m3, the cartridge loading drops below 10 pg and in addition, the Tekran 2537 integration routine becomes signicant. Swartzendruber et al. (2009) reported issues with the standard integration routine and note that below cartridge loadings of 10 pg the internal integration routine produces a low bias in the Hg(0) concentration.They recommend downloading the raw data, i.e., PMT output, and integrating ofine. This issue has recently been discussed by Slemr et al. (2016) in a reanalysis of data from the CARIBIC program. This compounds the problem of correcting the bias between Spec1 and Spec2. Because the speciation instruments were sampling at 4 L min1 rather than the recommended 10 L min1, a large number of the measurements made by the speciation systems are based on uncorrected cartridge loadings of less than 10 pg m3. Based on the above, we caution against drawing signicant conclusions based on differences between Spec1 and the cor-

480 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

before reaching the instruments. The residence time in the RAMIX manifold was on the order of 1 s depending on sampling point and there is no known chemistry that can account for oxidation of Hg(0) or reduction of RGM on this timescale. We would suggest that the most reasonable explanation of the discrepancies between the various RAMIX measurements includes both instrumental artifacts and an incomplete characterization of the RAMIX manifold. If fast gas-phase chemistry is producing or removing RGM in the RAMIX manifold, the same chemistry must be operative in the atmosphere as a whole and this requires that we completely revise our current understanding of mercury chemistry. The discrepancies between the DOHGS and speciation systems are further indication that artifacts are associated with KCl denuder sampling under ambient conditions but we would suggest that RAMIX does not constitute an independent verication of the DOHGS performance and that the 2P-LIF measurements raise questions about the DOHGS measurements.

Ambrose et al. (2013) also suggest that the observations of very high RGM concentrations indicate multiple forms of RGM and that the concentrations can be explained by oxidation of Hg(0), with O3 and NO3 being the likely nighttime oxidants. We have discussed these reactions in detail previously (Hynes et al., 2009) and concluded that they cannot play any role in homogeneous gas-phase oxidation of Hg(0).Ambrose et al. (2013) cite recent work on this reaction by Rutter et al. (2012) stating that On the basis of thermodynamic data for proposed reaction mechanisms, purely gas-phase Hg(0) oxidation by either O3 or NO3 is expected to be negligibly slow under atmospheric conditions; however, in the case of O3-initiated Hg(0) oxidation, the results of laboratory kinetics studies unanimously suggest the existence of a gas-phase mechanism for which the kinetics can be treated as second-order. We would suggest that a careful reading of the cited work by Rutter et al. (2012) demonstrates the opposite conclusion. We provide additional discussion of these issues in the Supplement and again conclude that O3 and NO3 can play no role in the homogeneous gas-phase oxidation of Hg(0).

5 Future mercury intercomparisons

The discrepancies that are discussed above suggest a need for a careful independent evaluation of mercury measurement techniques. The approaches used during the evaluation of instrumentation for the NASA Global Tropospheric Experiment (GTE) and the Gas-Phase Sulfur Intercomparison Experiment (GASIE) evaluation offer good models for such an evaluation. The Chemical Instrument and Testing Experiments (CITE 13) (Beck et al., 1987; Hoell et al., 1990, 1993) were a major component of GTE establishing the validity of the airborne measurement techniques used in the campaign. The GASIE experiment (Luther and Stecher III,

1997; Stecher III et al., 1997) was a ground-based intercom-parison of SO2 measurement techniques that might be particularly relevant to issues associated with mercury measurement. In particular, GASIE was a rigorously blind intercom-parison that was overseen by an independent panel consisting of three atmospheric scientists, none of whom were involved in SO2 research. We would suggest that a future mercury intercomparison should be blind with independent oversight. Based on the RAMIX results, it should consist of a period of direct ambient sampling and then manifold sampling in both reactive and unreactive congurations. For example, an unreactive conguration would consist of Hg(0) and oxidized mercury in an N2 diluent eliminating any possibility of manifold reactions and offering the possibility of obtaining a manifold blank response. Such a conguration would allow the use of both denuder and pyrolysis measurements since it is reasonable to conclude, based on the current body of experimental evidence, that denuder artifacts are associated with ambient sampling, with water vapor and ozone as the most likely culprits. A reactive conguration would be similar to the RAMIX manifold conguration with atmospheric sampling into the manifold and periodic addition of Hg(0) and oxidized mercury over their ambient concentrations. The combination of the three sampling congurations should enable instrumental artifacts to be distinguished from reactive chemistry in either the manifold itself or, for example, on the KCl denuder.

6 Conclusions

We deployed a 2P-LIF instrument for the measurement of Hg(0) and RGM during the RAMIX campaign. The Hg(0) measurements agreed reasonably well with instruments using gold amalgamation sampling coupled with CVAFS analysis of Hg(0). Measurements agreed to within 1025 % on the short-term variability in Hg(0) concentrations based on a 5 min temporal resolution. Our results also suggest that the operation of the RAMIX manifold and spiking systems were not as well characterized as Finley et al. (2013) suggest. We nd that the calculated concentration spikes consistently overestimated the amount of Hg(0) introduced into the RAMIX manifold by as much as 30 %. This suggests a systematic error in concentration calculations rather than random uncertainties that should not produce a high or low bias.

We made measurements of TM, and hence TOM by difference, by using pyrolysis to convert TOM to Hg(0) and switching between pyrolyzed and ambient samples. The short-term variation in ambient Hg(0) concentrations is a signicant limitation on detection sensitivity and suggests that a two-channel detection system, monitoring both the pyrolyzed and ambient channels simultaneously, is necessary for ambient TOM measurements. Our TOM measurements were normally consistent, within the large uncertainty, with KCl denuder measurements obtained with two Tekran speci-

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 481

ation systems and with our own manual KCl denuder measurements. The ability of the pyrolysis system to measure higher RGM concentrations was demonstrated during one of the manifold HgBr2 spikes but the results did not agree with those reported by the UW DOHGS system. We would suggest that it is not possible to reconcile the different measurement approaches to TOM. While there is other evidence that KCl denuders may experience artifacts in the presence of water vapor and ozone, the reported discrepancies cannot explain the very large differences reported by the DOHGS and Tekran speciation systems. Similarly, the differences between the DOHGS and 2P-LIF pyrolysis measurements suggest that one or both of the instruments were not making reliable quantitative measurements of RGM. We suggest that instrumental artifacts, an incomplete characterization of the sampling manifold and limitations in the measurement protocols all make signicant contributions to the discrepancies between the different instruments, and it would be rash to draw signicant implications for the atmospheric cycling of mercury based on the RAMIX results. This is particularly true of the RGM results. If one were to conclude that the discrepancies between the DOHGS and speciation systems sampling ambient oxidized mercury are accurate and reect a bias that can be extrapolated to global measurements, then it means that atmospheric RGM concentrations are much higher than previously thought and that we have little understanding of the atmospheric cycling of mercury. What is not in dispute is the urgent need to resolve the discrepancies between the various measurement techniques. The RAMIX campaign provided a valuable guide for the format of any future mercury intercomparison. It clearly demonstrated the need to deploy high-accuracy calibration sources of Hg(0) and oxidized mercury, the need for multiple independent methods to measure elemental and oxidized mercury and to clearly characterize and understand the differences reported by instruments that are currently being deployed for measurements.

7 Data availability

Data are available from the corresponding author ([email protected]).

The Supplement related to this article is available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-465-2017-supplement

Web End =doi:10.5194/acp-17-465-2017-supplement .

and Dan Jaffe for the use of their RAMIX data for comparison with our results. We thank Eric Prestbo for helpful comments on the manuscript.

Edited by: J. B. Burkholder Reviewed by: two anonymous referees

References

Ambrose, J. L., Lyman, S. N., Huang, J., Gustin, M. S., and Jaffe, D. A.: Fast time resolution oxidized mercury measurements during the Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment (RAMIX), Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 72847294, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es303916v

Web End =10.1021/es303916v http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es303916v

Web End = , 2013.

Bauer, D., Campuzano-Jost, P., and Hynes, A. J.: Rapid, ultra-sensitive detection of gas phase elemental mercury under atmospheric conditions using sequential two-photon laser induced uorescence, J. Environ. Monitor., 4, 339343, 2002.

Bauer, D., DOttone, L., Campuzano-Jost, P., and Hynes, A. J.: Gas Phase Elemental Mercury: A Comparison of LIF Detection Techniques and Study of the Kinetics of Reaction with the Hydroxyl Radical, J. Photochem. Photobiol., 57, 247256, 247, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1010-6030(03)00065-0

Web End =10.1016/S1010-6030(03)00065-0 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1010-6030(03)00065-0

Web End = , 2003.

Bauer, D., Everhart, S., Remeika, J., Tatum Ernest, C., and Hynes,A. J.: Deployment of a sequential two-photon laser-induced uorescence sensor for the detection of gaseous elemental mercury at ambient levels: fast, specic, ultrasensitive detection with parts-per-quadrillion sensitivity, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 7, 42514265, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-4251-2014

Web End =10.5194/amt-7-4251-2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-4251-2014

Web End = , 2014.

Beck, S. M., Bendura, R. J., McDougal, D. S., Hoell, J. M., Gregory,G. L., Curfman Jr., H. J., Davis, D. D., Bradshaw, J., Rodgers, M.O., Wang, C. C., Davis, L. I., Campbell, M. J., Torres, A. L., Carroll, M. A., Ridley, B. A., Sachse, G. W., Hill, G. F., Condon,E. P., and Rasmussen, R. A.: Operational overview of NASA GTE CITE-1 airborne instrument intercomparisons carbon-monoxide, nitric-oxide, and hydroxyl instrumentation, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 19771985, 1987Breckenridge, W. H. and Umemoto, H.: Collisional Quenching of

Electronically Excited Metal Atoms, in: Advances in Chemical Physics: Dynamics of the Excited State, Vol. 50, edited by: Lawley, K. P., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470142745.ch5

Web End =10.1002/9780470142745.ch5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470142745.ch5

Web End = , 2007.

Dez, S.: Human health effects of methylmercury exposure, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 198, 111132, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09647-6_3

Web End =10.1007/978-0- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09647-6_3

Web End =387-09647-6_3 , 2009.

Ebinghaus, R., Banic, C., Beauchamp, S., Jaffe, D., Kock, H., Pirrone, N., Poissant, L., Sprovieri, F., and Weiss-Penzias, P.: Spatial coverage and temporal trends of land-based atmospheric mercury measurements in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, in: Mercury fate and transport in the global atmosphere: Emissions, measurements and models, edited by: Mason, R. and Pirrone, N., Springer, New York, NY, 2009.

Ernest, C. T., Donohoue, D., Bauer, D., Ter Schure, A., and Hynes, A. J.: Programmable Thermal Dissociation of Reactive Gaseous Mercury, a Potential Approach to Chemical Speciation: Results from a Field Study, Atmosphere, 5, 575596, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos5030575

Web End =10.3390/atmos5030575 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos5030575

Web End = , 2014.

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017

Acknowledgements. This work was supported by NSF grant (no. AGS-1101965), a National Science Foundation Major Instrumental grant (no. MRI-0821174) and by the Electric Power Research Institute. We thank Mae Gustin and her research group and Robert Novak for their hospitality, assistance and use of laboratory facilities during the RAMIX intercomparison. We thank Mae Gustin

482 A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison

Feng, X., Lu, J. Y., Gregoire, D. C., Hao, Y., Banic, C. M., and Schroeder, W. H.: Evaluation and application: of a gaseous mercuric chloride source, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 376, 11371140, 2003.

Finley, B. D., Jaffe, D. A., Call, K., Lyman, S., Gustin, M., Peterson, C., Miller, M., and Lyman, T.: Development, testing, and deployment of an air sampling manifold for spiking elemental and oxidized mercury during the Reno Atmospheric Mercury Intercomparison Experiment (RAMIX), Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 72777284, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es304185a

Web End =10.1021/es304185a http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es304185a

Web End = , 2013.

Gustin, M. and Jaffe, D.: Reducing the Uncertainty in Measurement and Understanding of Mercury in the Atmosphere, Environ. Sci.Technol., 44, 22222227, 2010.

Gustin, M. S., Huang, J., Miller, M. B., Peterson, C., Jaffe, D. A., Ambrose, J., Finley, B. D., Lyman, S. N., Call, K., Talbot, R., Feddersen, D., Mao, H., and Lindberg, S. E.: Do we understand what the mercury speciation instruments are actually measuring? Results of RAMIX, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 72957306, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3039104

Web End =10.1021/es3039104 http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3039104

Web End = , 2013.

Hoell, J. M., Albritton, D. L., Gregory, G. L., McNeal, R. J., Beck,S. M., Bendura, R. J., and Drewry, J. W.: Operational overview of NASA GTE/CITE-2 airborne instrument intercomparisons nitrogen-dioxide, nitric-acid, and peroxyacetyl nitrate, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 1004710054, 1990.

Hoell, J. M., Davis, D. D., Gregory, G. L., McNeal, R. J., Bendura,R. J., Drewry, J. W., Barrick, J. D., Kirchhoff, V. W. J. H., Motta,A. G., Navarro, R. L., Dorko, W. D., and Owen, D. W.: operational overview of the NASA GTE CITE-3 airborne instrument intercomparisons for sulfur-dioxide, hydrogen-sulde, carbonyl sulde,dimethyl sulde, and carbon-disulde, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 2329123304, 1993.

Houyoux, M. and Strum, M.: Memorandum: Emissions Overview: Hazardous Air Pollutants in Support of the Final Mercury and Air Toxics Standard; EPA-454/R-11-014, Emission Inventory and Analysis Group Air Quality Assessment Division: Research Triangle Park, NC, USA, available at: http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100DE6H.TXT

Web End =http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100DE6H.TXT

Web End =ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100DE6H.TXT (last access: 21 December 2016), 2011.

Hynes, A. J., Donohoue, D. L., Goodsite, M. E., and Hedgecock,I. M.: Our current understanding of major chemical and physical processes affecting mercury dynamics in the atmosphere and at the air-water/terrestrial interfaces, in: Mercury Fate and Transport in the Global Atmosphere, edited by: Mason, R. and Pirrone,N., Spring New York, NY, 2009.

Landis, M. S., Stevens, R. K., Schaedlich, F., and Prestbo, E.M.: Development and Characterization of an Annular Denuder Methodology for the Measurement of Divalent Inorganic Reactive Gaseous Mercury in Ambient Air, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 30003009, 2002.

Lin, C. J., Pongprueksa, P., Lindberg, S. E., Pehkonen, S. O., Byun,D., and Jang, C.: Scientic uncertainties in atmospheric mercury models I: Model science evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 40, 2911 2928, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.009

Web End =10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.009 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.009

Web End = , 2006.

Lindberg, S. E., Bullock, R., Ebinghaus, R., Engstrom, D., Feng,X., Fitzgerald, W., Pirrone, N., Prestbo, E., and Seigneur, C.: A synthesis of progress and uncertainties in attributing the sources of mercury in deposition, Ambio, 36, 1932, 2007.

Luther III, G. W. and Stecher III, H. A.: Results of the gas-phase sulfur intercomparison experiment (GASIE). Preface: Historical Background, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 1621516217, 1997.

Lyman, S. N., Jaffe, D. A., and Gustin, M. S.: Release of mercury halides from KCl denuders in the presence of ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 81978204, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-8197-2010

Web End =10.5194/acp-10-8197- http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-8197-2010

Web End =2010 , 2010.

Mason, R. A.: Mercury Emissions from Natural Processes and their Importance in the Global Mercury Cycle, in: Mercury Fate and Transport in the Global Atmosphere: Emissions, Measurements and Models, edited by: Pirrone, N., Mason, R. A., Springer: Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 173191, 2009.

Mergler, D., Anderson, H. A., Chan, L. H. M., Mahaffey, K. R., Murray, M., Sakamoto, M., and Stern, A. H.: Methylmercury exposure and health effects in humans: A worldwide concern, Ambio, 36, 311, 2007.

McClure, C. D., Jaffe, D. A., and Edgerton, E. S.: Evaluation of the KCl denuder method for gaseous oxidized mercury using HgBr2 at an in-service AMNet site, Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 11437 11444, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es502545k

Web End =10.1021/es502545k http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es502545k

Web End = , 2014.

Prestbo, E. C.: Air Mercury Speciation Accuracy and Calibration, presented at: International Conference on Mercury as a Global Pollutant, July 2015, available at: http://www.tekran.com/files/Prestbo-Speciation-Accuracy.pdf

Web End =http://www.tekran.com/ http://www.tekran.com/files/Prestbo-Speciation-Accuracy.pdf

Web End =les/Prestbo-Speciation-Accuracy.pdf http://www.tekran.com/files/Prestbo-Speciation-Accuracy.pdf

Web End = , last access: 21 December 2016.

Pirrone, N., Cinnirella, S., Feng, X., Finkelman, R. B., Friedli,H. R., Learner, J., Mason, R., Mukherjee, A. B., Stracher, G., Streets, D. G., and Telmer, K.: Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources, in: Mercury Fate and Transport in the Global Atmosphere: Emissions, Measurements and Models, edited by: Pirrone, N., Mason, R. A., Springer: Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 350, 2009.

Rutter, A. P., Shakya, K. M., Lehr, R., Schauer, J. J., and Grifn,R. J.: Oxidation of gaseous elemental mercury in the presence of secondary organic aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 59, 8692, 2012.Scheuhammer, A. M., Meyer, M. W., Sandheinrich, M. B., and

Murray, M. W.: Effects of environmental methylmercury on the health of wild bird, mammals, and sh, Ambio, 36, 1218, doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[12:EOEMOT]2.0.CO;2 , 2007.Selin, N. E.: Global Biogeochemical Cycling of Mercury:

A Review, Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 34, 4363, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.environ.051308.084314

Web End =10.1146/annurev.environ.051308.084314 , 2009.

Slemr, F., Brunke, E.-G., Ebinghaus, R., and Kuss, J.: Worldwide trend of atmospheric mercury since 1995, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 47794787, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-4779-2011

Web End =10.5194/acp-11-4779-2011 http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-4779-2011

Web End = , 2011.

Slemr, F., Weigelt, A., Ebinghaus, R., Kock, H. H., Bdewadt, J., Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M., Rauthe-Schch, A., Weber, S., Hermann, M., Zahn, A., and Martinsson, B.: Atmospheric mercury measurements onboard the CARIBIC passenger aircraft, Atmos.Chem. Phys. Discuss., in press, 2016.

Sprovieri, F., Pirrone, N., Bencardino, M., DAmore, F., Carbone, F., Cinnirella, S., Mannarino, V., Landis, M., Ebinghaus,R., Weigelt, A., Brunke, E.-G., Labuschagne, C., Martin, L., Munthe, J., Wngberg, I., Artaxo, P., Morais, F., Barbosa, H. D.M. J., Brito, J., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., Diguez, M. D. C., Garcia, P. E., Dommergue, A., Angot, H., Magand, O., Skov,H., Horvat, M., Kotnik, J., Read, K. A., Neves, L. M., Gawlik,B. M., Sena, F., Mashyanov, N., Obolkin, V., Wip, D., Feng, X.B., Zhang, H., Fu, X., Ramachandran, R., Cossa, D., Knoery, J.,

Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017 www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/

A. J. Hynes et al.: Results from the RAMIX mercury intercomparison 483

Marusczak, N., Nerentorp, M., and Norstrom, C.: Atmospheric mercury concentrations observed at ground-based monitoring sites globally distributed in the framework of the GMOS network, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 1191511935, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-11915-2016

Web End =10.5194/acp- http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-11915-2016

Web End =16-11915-2016 , 2016.

Stecher III, H. A., Luther III, G. W., MacTaggart, D. L., Farwell,S. O., Crossley, D. R., Dorko, W. D., Goldan, P. D., Beltz, N., Krischke, U., Luke, W. T., Thornton, D. C., Talbot, R. W., Lefer,B. L., Scheuer, E. M., Benner, R. L., Wu, J., Saltzman, E. S., Gallagher, M. S., and Ferek, R. J.: Results of the gas- phase sulfur intercomparison experiment (GASIE): Overview of experimental setup, results, and general conclusions, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 1621916236, 1997.

Streets, D. G., Devane, M. K., Lu, Z., Bond, T. C., Sunderland, E.M., and Jacob, D. J.: All-time releases of mercury to the atmosphere from human activities, Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 10485 10491, 2011.

Subir, M., Ariya, P. A., and Dastoor, A. P.: A review of uncertainties in atmospheric modeling of mercury chemistry I. Uncertainties in existing kinetic parameters: Fundamental limitations and the importance of heterogeneous chemistry, Atmos. Environ., 45, 56645676, 2011.

Subir, M., Ariya, P. A., and Dastoor, A. P.: A review of the sources of uncertainties in atmospheric mercury modeling II. Mercury surface and heterogeneous chemistry A missing link, Atmos.Environ., 46, 110, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.047

Web End =10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.047 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07.047

Web End = , 2012.

Swartzendruber, P. C., Jaffe, D. A., and Finley, B.: Improved uorescence peak integration in the Tekran 2537 for applications with sub-optimal sample loadings, Atmos. Environ., 43, 3648 3651, 2009.

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program, Chemicals Branch, The Global Atmospheric Mercury Assessment: Sources, Emissions and Transport, Geneva, Switzerland, available at: http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Portals/9/Mercury/Documents/Publications/UNEP_GlobalAtmosphericMercuryAssessment_May2009.pdf

Web End =http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/ http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Portals/9/Mercury/Documents/Publications/UNEP_GlobalAtmosphericMercuryAssessment_May2009.pdf

Web End =Portals/9/Mercury/Documents/Publications/UNEP_ http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Portals/9/Mercury/Documents/Publications/UNEP_GlobalAtmosphericMercuryAssessment_May2009.pdf

Web End =GlobalAtmosphericMercuryAssessment_May2009.pdf (last access: 21 December 2016), 2008.

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program, Chemicals Branch, Mercury, Time to Act, Geneva, Switzerland, available at: http://www.unep.org/PDF/PressReleases/Mercury_TimeToAct.pdf

Web End =http: http://www.unep.org/PDF/PressReleases/Mercury_TimeToAct.pdf

Web End =//www.unep.org/PDF/PressReleases/Mercury_TimeToAct.pdf (last access: 21 December 2016), 2013.

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program, available at: http://www.mercuryconvention.org

Web End =http:// http://www.mercuryconvention.org

Web End =www.mercuryconvention.org (last access: 21 December 2016), 2014.

US EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Mercury Research Strategy, EPA/600/R-00/073, Washington DC, USA, September 2000.

US EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Mercury and Air Toxics Standard, available at: http://www.epa.gov/mats

Web End =http://www.epa.gov/mats , last access: 13 March 2013.

www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/465/2017/ Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 465483, 2017