1. Introduction
Natural radionuclides 210Pb (T1/2 = 22.3 a) and 210Po (T1/2 = 138.4 d) are members of the 238U decay chain [1]. 210Pb and 210Po enter the marine environment from atmospheric deposition at the ocean surface, from the in situ radioactive decay of 226Ra dissolved in seawater, from the decay of 222Rn gas exhaled by the seafloor, and from river and anthropogenic discharges. Polonium ions in the marine environment are rapidly adsorbed onto suspended particles and are accumulated by marine organisms while lead ions are adsorbed onto inorganic particles; thus, 210Po can be accumulated in marine biotas more effectively than 210Pb [2]. Early research on 210Po and 210Pb levels and their distribution in marine organisms indicated that ingestion of seafood could be the main exposure pathway for humans to receive radiation [3]. According to the UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation) report, the annual effective doses caused by the ingestion of 210Pb and 210Po were approximately 80% of that caused by the ingestion of uranium- and thorium-series radionuclides [1]. Consequently, investigating the radiological impact of 210Po and 210Pb in marine products is necessary for protecting human health.
The 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations in marine biota are spread over several orders of magnitude in the literature [4,5,6,7]. Previous studies focused on the activity concentrations of edible portions of seafood and the related dose assessment to the human [4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. The 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations and 210Po/210Pb ratios in separate organs of different marine biota are essential for establishing reference individuals/reference marine biota for use in radiation protection [17], are important for understanding of the 210Po-enriched biochemistry and are critical for establishing the relevant standards for the limits/reference level of radionuclides in food samples.
In China, investigation of the 210Po and 210Pb activity in marine biota started relatively late, and few studies have been performed. In recent years, studies have focused on the edible portions of common marine biota [18,19,20]. However, the distributions of the 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations in selected marine organisms have rarely been reported, and the current understanding of the 210Po-enriched biochemistry is poor. Thus, the main objectives of the present study were to determine the activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb in edible portions and all other organs of various marine biota species in China and to evaluate the annual effective ingestion dose and lifetime risk of cancer to the public in terms of health and safety.
2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Sample Collection and Preparation
Eight seafood samples, including fish, crustacean, and algae samples, were collected from the Fujian coast, China, in August 2020. The research area is shown in Figure 1. The sampling site, corresponding samples, and feeding habitat are presented in Table 1. All the seafood samples were classified, marked, and transfer to the laboratory on the same day. These samples were cleaned with ultrapure water to eliminate any possible residues and impurities. The edible portions (muscles) of the fish samples were extracted from every biota, and the non-edible portions of the fish were divided into 12 organs: the head, fish fins, bones, scales, gills, kidney, stomach, spleen, heart, liver, gonad, and intestine. The non-edible portions of the crustaceans were divided into the head and carapace. All the samples were labeled, weighed, and dried at 80 °C to a constant weight (to avoid 210Po losses) and finally crushed and homogenized for analysis.
2.2. Apparatus and Reagents Liquid scintillation counting (Tri-Carb 3170TR/SL, PerkinElmer, Walsham, MA, USA) was used to measure the 210Pb and 210Po activity. The elemental concentrations of Pb were measured via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Element II, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bremen, Germany). A microwave digestion system (Preeken EXCEl, Shanghai, China) was used for digestion of the seafood samples. All the chemicals used were of analytical grade (AR, Beijing, China). Sr·spec resin (100–150 μm) was purchased from Triskem International (Rennes, France). A 210Pb reference solution (equilibrium with 210Bi and 210Po, 363.8 Bq/g) purchased from National Physical Laboratory (NPL, Tdington, London) was used for 210Pb and 210Po efficiency correction. A Pb carrier was prepared via the dissolution of Pb(NO3)2 (AR, Beijing, China) for Pb chemical recovery correction. Ultima Gold™ AB was purchased from PerkinElmer (USA). Ultrapure water (18.2 MΩ·cm−1) obtained from a Milli-Q system (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) was used. 2.3. Sample Digestion, Separation, and Measurement
The radiochemical procedure used for the 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations in seafood samples is given elsewhere [21]. In brief, 0.5 g dried seafood samples were digested by the microwave digestion system. The 210Pb and 210Po in the samples were separated from the digestive liquid using a previously prepared Sr-Spec column (2 mL). 20 mL of 2 M HCl solution, 5 mL of 1 M HNO3 + 25 mL 0.1 M HNO3 and 20 mL 0.1 M (NH4)2C2O4 successively passed through the column for 210Bi (discard), 210Po and Pb fraction striping, respectively. The 210Pb eluents and 210Po eluents were heated gently to near dryness, and several small amounts of 0.1 M HNO3 were also added to homogeneity. 2 mL 0.1 M HNO3 and 18 mL of Gold AB liquid scintillation cocktail were added, shaken well, and placed in the dark for 2 h, the 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations were measured via liquid scintillation counting (LSC) in the α/β pulse discrimination analysis (PSA) mode (PSA value = 145) for 1000 min, the Region of Interest (ROI) for 210Pb and 210Po were 1–28 channels and 0–1000 channels, respectively. Then, 2 mg stable Pb carrier was added in each samples before seafood samples digestion for Pb recovery correction, Pb recovery was calculated by initial concentration and final concentration after isolated by Sr-Spec column. The concentration of Pb was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The Po yield of this procedure was expressed as overall efficiency, which was determined by measuring the net counts of 210Po before and after separated on Sr·spec column. Batch experiments indicate that overall efficiency of Po were fluctuated in a small range (66.7 ± 2.5%), 210Po overall efficiency was recommended for calculation the activity concentrations of 210Po in further experiments.
2.4. Method Validation
To validate the method, a reference material (IAEA-447, Moss Soil reference material, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria) was used. The results obtained using our method agreed well with certified values. Additionally, to validate the results, the 210Po activity concentration of every sample was determined via α spectrometry after source preparation through spontaneous deposition onto a copper plate, which is the most commonly used method for monitoring the activity of 210Po [22].
2.5. Evaluation of Effective Ingestion Dose and Lifetime Risk of Cancer to Humans
The effective ingestion dose to humans from marine seafood ingestion was evaluated according to the seafood consumption per year, dose conversion factors for humans and activity concentrations of seafood. The formula for radionuclide estimation is [23,24]:
CD=Rc×IR×DF
where CD represents the annual effective ingestion dose (Sv/a), RC represents the activity concentration of the specific radionuclides in the seafood samples (Bq/kg), IR represents the annual ingestion rate (kg/a), and DF is the dose conversion factor (Sv/Bq).
The parameter used for annual intake rate (IR) in this study was adopted from a previously reported method [25]. IR for adults (>18 years old), juveniles (14–17 years old) are 14.60 kg/a, and that for children (7–13 years old) is 10.95 kg/a. The parameters in Table 2 for the dose conversion factor (DF) were obtained from International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) [26].
The lifetime risk of cancer was also calculated via the formula [23,24]:
RK=IR×f1×T×Rcoe×Rc
where RK represents the lifetime risk of cancer, IR represents the annual seafood ingestion rate (kg/a), f1 represents the estimated gastrointestinal absorption fraction of a specific radionuclide, T represents the exposure duration (50 a. for adults, 60 a. for juveniles, and 70 a. for children), Rcoe is the risk coefficient from ICRP [27], and RC represents the activity concentration of the specified radionuclide in the seafood samples (Bq/kg).
3. Results and Discussion 3.1. 210Po and 210Pb Concentrations in Edible Tissues of Different Biota Species
The activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb in the edible portions of seafood samples are presented in Table 3. All the data have units of Bq/kg wet weight (w.w.). The average 210Po activity concentration was 5.31 ± 0.52 Bq/kg for all the edible portions of the seafood samples and ranged from 0.74 ± 0.08 Bq/kg (Red Sea bream muscle samples) to 12.6 ± 1.0 Bq/kg (eel samples (Anguillidae)), while the 210Pb activity concentrations ranged from the minimum detectable limit (MDL), i.e., 0.8 Bq/kg wet weight for 210Pb) to 11.7 Bq/kg (eel samples), with a mean value of 3.36 ± 0.41 Bq/kg. The 210Po and 210Pb concentrations in seafood samples found in our study were compared to those determined in previous studies from China and other countries. Our results are consistent with the previously reported ranges of 0.13–3.26 Bq/kg (w.w.) and 0.2–25.8 Bq/kg (w.w.) for the 210Pb and 210Po activity concentrations, respectively, in seafood samples from the coast of Guangdong, China [20]. They are also similar to a previously reported finding that the 210Po level of various seafood edible portions ranged between 1.17 × 10−1 and 6.58 × 10 Bq/kg (w.w.) [18]. Additionally, the 210Po activity concentration in the seafood samples agreed well with the results of a seafood radionuclide survey conducted in 1977–1978 [28].
To estimate the 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations of seafood samples from coastal regions of China, we concluded the previously reported activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb published by other countries. Compared with results from Spain, India, and Turkey [11,29,30], the concentrations of 210Po in our survey were lower, and there were no significant differences in the concentration range of 210Pb. The 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in our survey were similar to those reported for other countries [4,8,12,13,14,16,24,31,32,33,34,35]. Significant differences in the 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations among different countries were observed, possibly owing to the marine species evaluated and the variations in the geochemistry of the regions [8]. The average activity concentration of 210Po in fish samples was slighter lower than the representative concentrations reported by UNSCEAR (2.4 Bq/kg) [1]. The average activity concentrations of 210Po in the crustacean samples were slightly higher than the representative concentrations reported by UNSCEAR (6.0 and 15 Bq/kg, respectively). The 210Po concentration decreased in the following order: crustaceans > fish > algae. The higher 210Po activity concentrations in the crustaceans are explained as follows: (1) the edible portions of the crustaceans contained the digestive system, and the 210Po activity concentrations were generally higher in the internal organs than in the muscles [17]; (2) the crustaceans were captured in nature and were not subjected to artificial feeding. The order of the 210Pb activity was identical to that for 210Po. The 210Po/210Pb ratio was >1 for almost all the samples, with the exception of the Carassius auratus auratus and Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) samples. This may be because the 210Po was more easily concentrated in the internal organs than the 210Pb.
3.2. Distributions of 210Po and 210Pb Activity Concentrations in Selected Organs of Different Species
The 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations and 210Po/210Pb ratios in selected organs of four types of fish are shown in Figure 2.
As shown in Figure 2a, The 210Po activity concentrations in all the fish organs ranged from 0.68 to 204 Bq/kg (w.w.). The lowest and highest values were obtained for the fish scale sample of the Red sea bream and the intestine sample of the yellow croaker, and relatively high values were obtained for the stomach, spleen, heart, liver, gonad, and intestine samples. These results are consistent with previous studies [2,3]. As shown in Figure 2b, the 210Pb activity concentrations in all the fish organs ranged from the MDL to 15.18 Bq/kg (w.w.), and the highest value was obtained for the head sample of the Common sea perch. Relatively high values were obtained for the head, fish scale, and gill samples. Regarding the 210Po/210Pb ratio, the values for the stomach, liver, gonad, and intestine samples were significantly higher than one, and those for the bone, gill, head, fish scale, and fish fin samples were generally lower than one. This may be because 210Pb and 210Po accumulated in the organisms through the food chain (less 210Po absorption in the form of inorganic ions but more organic 210Po). 210Pb was mainly deposited on bones, and 210Po was mainly deposited on internal organs such as the liver, gastrointestinal tract, and gonad [17]. Similarly, the 210Po activity concentration of muscle samples in crustaceans (shrimp and Oratosquilla oratoria) was significantly lower than that of head samples, which may contributed to the viscera and digestive system of these two species are inside the head samples, and the viscera and digestive system were strongly bonded to 210Po, while the 210Pb activity concentrations exhibited no significant differences.
3.3. Effective Ingestion Dose and Risk to Humans via Seafood Consumption
The effective ingestion doses due to the ingestion of 210Pb and 210Po through seafood consumption for different ages were estimated, as shown in Figure 3. Because seafood consumption varies significantly among individuals, the weighted average activity concentration of 210Pb and 210Po in seafood samples were adopted for effective ingestion dose evaluation based on the representative values (fish:crustacean:mollusk = 13:1:1) [1]. The total effective ingestion doses ranged from 82.8 to 255 μSv/a for all the age groups. The total effective ingestion dose decreased in the following order: children > juveniles > adults. Among the radionuclides studied, 210Po was the highest contributor and accounted for >85% of the total dose. The total effective ingestion dose was also found below the average natural ingestion radiation dose received by humans around the world (300 μSv/a) [1], and the total effective ingestion dose for adults was 1/30 of the public annual effective dose (2.4 mSv/a) caused by natural radiation sources according to the UNSCEAR report [1]. Furthermore the effective dose caused by 210Pb and 210Po was below the legal dose limit of 1 mSv per year for members of the public recommended by Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) [36]. Therefore, seafood from the Fujian coast of China is considered to be safe for human consumption.
The lifetime risk of cancer levels associated with the ingestion of 210Pb and 210Po in seafood were estimated, as shown in Table 4. The risks varied in the range of 6.04 × 10−6 (adults, for 210Pb) to 1.24 × 10−4 (juveniles, for 210Po). All the total lifetime risk of cancer from ingestion of 210Pb and 210Po observed in this study was below the world mean value of 5.3 × 10−3 [27], and also much lower the lifetime risk of all cancer (27.77%) in China estimated by [37]. From this point of view, the lifetime risk of cancer due to 210Pb and 210Po was acceptable.
4. Conclusions The activity concentrations of 210Po and 210Pb were evaluated in seafood samples collected near the Fujian coast of China. The 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in edible portions of the marine biota were similar to those in the majority of the world’s countries, with the exceptions of Turkey, Spain, and India. 210Po was mainly concentrated in the liver, gonad, and intestine samples, and 210Pb was mainly concentrated in the bone, fish scale, and head samples. The 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations and 210Po/210Pb ratios observed in this study are valuable references for evaluating the radiation risk of marine biota. In the next research, the relationship between higher 210Po activity concentrations and biomarkers (such as H2O2, Superoxide dismutase and Malondialdehyde) would be also discussed in order to explore the 210Po-enriched mechanism in internal organs further. The annual effective ingestion dose and lifetime risk of cancer to humans due to 210Po and 210Pb for seafood consumption from the Fujian coast were consistent with previous studies performed around the world and were lower than the global mean values. Therefore, the risk of 210Po and 210Pb in the edible portions of seafood from the Fujian coast of China were within the acceptable ranges to public health.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Locations of sampling sites on Fujian coast, China. S is sampling site.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Distributions of the 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in selected organs of different species. (a) is for 210Po activity concentration; (b) is for 210Pb activity concentration; (c) is for 210Po/210Pb ratio). Note: WB = whole body, HD = head, FF = fish fin, BE = bone, FS = fish scale, GL = gill, KY = kidney, SH = stomach, SN = spleen, HT = heart, LR = liver, GD = gonad, ME = muscle, IE = intestine.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Effective ingestion doses due to the ingestion of 210Pb and 210Po through seafood consumption for different ages.
| Sampling Site | Sample | Amount | Feeding Habitat |
|---|---|---|---|
| S1 | Yellow croaker (Larimichthys polyactis) | 18 | Artificial rearing area (small fish and shrimp) |
| S1 | Carassius auratus auratus | 10 | Artificial rearing area (small fish and shrimp) |
| S1 | Red sea bream (Pagrus major) | 12 | Artificial rearing area (small fish and shrimp) |
| S1 | Common Sea perch (Lateolabrax japonicus) | 11 | Artificial rearing area (small fish and shrimp) |
| S1 | Ssargassum | several | Wild |
| S2 | Eel (Anguillidae) | several | Wild |
| S3 | Shrimp | several | Wild |
| S4 | Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) | 12 | Market |
| Radionuclide | f1 (≥1a) | DF (Sv/Bq) | Rcoe (risk/Bq) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Children | Juvenile | Adult | |||
| Pb | 0.4 a | 2.20 × 10−6 | 1.90 × 10−6 | 6.90 × 10−7 | 3.18 × 10−8 |
| Po | 0.5 | 4.40 × 10−6 | 2.60 × 10−6 | 1.20 × 10−6 | 6.09 × 10−8 |
a adult = 0.2.
| Category | Sample | 210Po (Bq/kg, w.w.) | Uncertainty (k = 2, Bq/kg) | 210Pb (Bq/kg, w.w.) | Uncertainty (k = 2, Bq/kg) | 210Po/210Pb Ratio |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fish | Yellow croaker (Larimichthys polyactis) | 1.39 | 0.15 | <MDL | ||
| Carassius auratus auratus | 1.67 | 0.17 | 1.69 | 0.31 | 0.99 | |
| Red sea bream (Pagrus major) | 10.4 | 1. 2 | <MDL | |||
| Common sea perch (Lateolabrax japonicus) | 0.99 | 0.12 | <MDL | |||
| Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) | 2.34 | 0.22 | 9.24 | 0.81 | 0.25 | |
| Eel (Anguillidae) | 12.6 | 1.0 | 11.7 | 1.1 | 1.08 | |
| Crustacean | Shrimp | 12.3 | 1.0 | 4.26 | 0.54 | 2.88 |
| Algae | Ssargassum | 0.74 | 0.08 | <MDL |
MDL: 0.8 Bq/kg wet weight for 210Pb.
| Lifetime Risk of Cancer | Children | Juveniles | Adults |
|---|---|---|---|
| 210Po | 9.30 × 10−5 | 1.24 × 10−4 | 1.03 × 10−4 |
| 210Pb | 1.09 × 10−5 | 1.45 × 10−5 | 6.04 × 10−6 |
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Y.J. and X.K.; methodology, X.K.; sample collection and pretreatment, X.K. and Q.Z.; sample analysis, X.K. and Y.Q.; resources, Y.J.; data curation, X.K.; writing original draft preparation, X.K.; writing-review and editing, Y.J. and X.K.; supervision, Y.J.; project administration, Y.J.; funding acquisition, Y.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by National Key Research and Development Project (No. 2019YFC1604804).
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
1. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation: New York, NY, USA, 2000; Volume 1, pp. 1-654.
2. International Atomic Energy Agency. The Environmental Behaviour of Polonium; Technical Reports Series No. 484; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, Austria, 2017.
3. Carvalho, F.P. Polonium (210Po) and lead (210Pb) in marine organisms and their transfer in marine food chains. J. Environ. Radioact. 2011, 102, 462-472.
4. Aoun, M.; El Samad, O.; Bou Khozam, R.; Lobinski, R. Assessment of committed effective dose due to the ingestion of 210Po and 210Pb in consumed Lebanese fish affected by a phosphate fertilizer plant. J. Environ. Radioact. 2015, 140, 25-29.
5. Fonollosa, E.; Peñalver, A.; Aguilar, C.; Borrull, F. Polonium-210 levels in different environmental samples. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2015, 22, 20032-20040.
6. Fowler, S.W. 210Po in the marine environment with emphasis on its behaviour within the biosphere. J. Environ. Radioact. 2011, 102, 448-461.
7. Kristan, U.; Planinšek, P.; Benedik, L.; Falnoga, I.; Stibilj, V. Polonium-210 and selenium in tissues and tissue extracts of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis (Gulf of Trieste). Chemosphere 2015, 119, 231-241.
8. Ababneh, Z.Q.; Ababneh, A.M.; Almasoud, F.I.; Alsagabi, S.; Alanazi, Y.J.; Aljulaymi, A.A.; Aljarrah, K.M. Assessment of the committed effective dose due to the210Po intake from fish consumption for the Arabian Gulf population. Chemosphere 2018, 210, 511-515.
9. Bartusková, M.; Malátová, I.; Bečková, V.; Hůlka, J. Activity of natural radionuclide 210Pb in Czech fodstuffs and its annual intake. Czech. J. Food Sci. 2019, 37, 463-468.
10. Hansen, V.; Mosbech, A.; Søgaard-Hansen, J.; Rigét, F.F.; Merkel, F.R.; Linnebjerg, J.F.; Schulz, R.; Zubrod, J.P.; Eulaers, I.; Asmund, G. 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in Greenlandic seabirds and dose assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 712, 136548.
11. Hurtado-Bermúdez, S.; Jurado-González, J.A.; Santos, J.L.; Díaz-Amigo, C.F.; Aparicio, I.; Mas, J.L.; Alonso, E. Baseline activity concentration of 210Po and 210Pb and dose assessment in bivalve at the Andalusian coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 133, 711-716.
12. Kim, S.H.; Hong, G.H.; Lee, H.M.; Cho, B.E. 210Po in the marine biota of Korean coastal waters and the effective dose from seafood consumption. J. Environ. Radioact. 2017, 174, 30-37.
13. Lee, H.W.; Wang, J.J. Annual dose of Taiwanese from the ingestion of 210Po in oysters. Appl. Radiat. Isot. 2013, 73, 9-11.
14. Çatal, E.M.; Uĝur, A.; Özden, B.; Filizok, I. 210Po and 210Pb variations in fish species from the Aegean Sea and the contribution of 210Po to the radiation dose. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2012, 64, 801-806.
15. Pang, C.; Wang, W.; Tuo, F.; Yao, S.; Zhang, J. Determinations of 210Pb contents in food, diet, environmental samples and estimations of internal dose due to daily intakes. J. Environ. Radioact. 2019, 203, 107-111.
16. Štrok, M.; Smodiš, B. Levels of 210Po and 210Pb in fish and in Slovenia and the related dose assessment to the population. Chemosphere 2011, 82, 970-976.
17. Carvalho, F.P.; Oliveira, J.M.; Alberto, G. Factors affecting 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in mussels and implications for environmental bio-monitoring programmes. J. Environ. Radioact. 2011, 102, 128-137.
18. Dong, X.F.; Chen, L.; Pan, J.S.; Wang, J.C.; Zhou, S.L.; Cao, Z.G.; Pan, Z.Q. 210Po Level in Five Kinds of Typical Aquatic Products From the Yellow Sea of China. J. Nucl. Radiochem. 2018, 40, 67-73. (In Chinese)
19. Dong, X.F.; Wang, J.C.; Zhou, S.L.; Liu, Y. Annual Report of China Institute of Atomic Energy 2016; China Institute of Atomic Energy: Beijing, China, 2016; pp. 204-205. (In Chinese)
20. Li, M.L.; Qin, L.J.; Lin, J.F.; Deng, F. Activities of Pb-210 and Po-210 in Marine Organisms in Coastal Areas of Guangdong Province. Radiat. Prot. Bull. 2017, 37, 43-48. (In Chinese)
21. Kong, X.; Yin, L.; Ji, Y. Simultaneous determination of 210Pb and 210Po in seafood samples using liquid scintillation counting. J. Environ. Radioact. 2021, 231, 106553.
22. National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. Measurement of 210Po in Food Samples; National Health Commission of the PRC: Beijing, China, 2016. (In Chinese)
23. Gorur, F.K.; Camgoz, H. Natural radioactivity in various water samples and radiation dose estimations in Bolu province, Turkey. Chemosphere 2014, 112, 134-140.
24. Khan, M.F.; Godwin Wesley, S. Assessment of health safety from ingestion of natural radionuclides in seafoods from a tropical coast, India. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62, 399-404.
25. Reference Individuals for Use in Radiation Protection-Part 4: Dietary Component and Intakes of Elements; National Standard, the Ministry of Health of China GBZ/T 2004-2009; National Standard, the Ministry of Health of China: Beijing, China, 2009.
26. International Atomic Energy Agency. International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources; IAEA No. 115; International Atomic Energy Agency: Vienna, Austria, 1996.
27. International Commission on Radiological Protection. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60. Ann. ICRP 21; International Commission on Radiological Protection: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1991; pp. 1-3.
28. China Atomic Energy Press. Investigation on Radioactivity of Seafood; China Atomic Energy Press: Beijing, China, 1983.
29. Belivermiş, M.; Kılıç, Ö.; Efe, E.; Sezer, N.; Gönülal, O.; Kaya, T.N.A. Mercury and Po-210 in mollusc species in the island of GÖkçeada in the north-eastern Aegean Sea: Bioaccumulation and risk assessment for human consumers. Chemosphere 2019, 235, 876-884.
30. Musthafa, M.S.; Arunachalam, K.D.; Raiyaan, G.I.D. Baseline measurements of 210Po and 210Pb in the seafood of Kasimedu fishing harbour, Chennai, South East Coast of India and related dose to population. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol. 2019, 1, 43-48.
31. Uddin, S.; Behbehani, M.; Al-Ghadban, A.N.; Sajid, S.; Vinod Kumar, V.; Al-Musallam, L.; Al-Zekri, W.; Ali, M.; Al-Julathi, S.; Al-Murad, M.; et al. 210Po concentration in selected diatoms and dinoflagellates in the northern Arabian Gulf. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 129, 343-346.
32. Khan, M.F.; Wesley, S.G. Baseline concentration of Polonium-210 (210Po) in tuna fish. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 107, 379-382.
33. Ciesielski, T.; Góral, M.; Szefer, P.; Jenssen, B.M.; Bojanowski, R. 137Cs, 40K and 210Po in marine mammals from the southern Baltic Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 101, 422-428.
34. Hemalatha, P.; Madhuparna, D.; Jha, S.K.; Tripathi, R.M. An investigation of 210Po distribution in marine organisms in the Mumbai Harbour Bay. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2015, 303, 271-276.
35. Rožmarić, M.; Rogić, M.; Benedik, L.; Štrok, M.; Barišić, D.; Gojmerac Ivšić, A. 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in Mytilus galloprovincialis from Croatian Adriatic coast with the related dose assessment to the coastal population. Chemosphere 2012, 87, 1295-1300.
36. Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science. Radioactivity in Food and the Environment; Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science: Weymouth, UK, 2018.
37. Li, X.; Niu, H.; Sun, Q.; Ma, W. Estimation of baseline life time risk of developed cancer related to radiation exposure in China. Chin. J. Radiol. Med. Prot. 2011, 31, 695-697.
Xiangyin Kong
1,
Yuxin Qian
1,
Qishan Zheng
2 and
Yanqin Ji
1,*
1China CDC Key Laboratory of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Emergency, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Radiological Protection, Beijing 100088, China
2Fujian Center for Prevention and Control of Occupational Diseases and Chemical Poisoning, Fuzhou 350025, China
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
© 2021. This work is licensed under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.