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Abstract
The seafloor covers some 70% of the Earth’s surface and has been recognised as a major sink for marine litter. Still, litter on the seafloor is the least investigated fraction of marine litter, which is not surprising as most of it lies in the deep sea, i.e. the least explored ecosystem. Although marine litter is considered a major threat for the oceans, monitoring frameworks are still being set up. This paper reviews current knowledge and methods, identifies existing needs, and points to future developments that are required to address the estimation of seafloor macrolitter. It provides background knowledge and conveys the views and thoughts of scientific experts on seafloor marine litter offering a review of monitoring and ocean modelling techniques. Knowledge gaps that need to be tackled, data needs for modelling, and data comparability and harmonisation are also discussed. In addition, it shows how research on seafloor macrolitter can inform international protection and conservation frameworks to prioritise efforts and measures against marine litter and its deleterious impacts.
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1 GRC Geociències Marines, Departament de Dinàmica de la Terra i de l’Oceà, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
2 Okeanos/MAR—Instituto do Mar, Departamento de Oceanografia e Pescas, Universidade dos Açores, Rua Prof. Doutor Frederico Machado, 9901-862 Horta, Faial, Ilhas dos Açores, Portugal
3 Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar-und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
4 European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Via Enrico Fermi 2749, I-21027 Ispra, Italy
5 Utrecht University, Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Princetonplein 5, 3584 CC Utrecht, The Netherlands
6 Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale (ISPRA), Area per la tutela della biodiversità, degli habitat e speciemarine protette (BIO-HBT), Via Vitaliano Brancati 60, 00144 Roma, Italy; Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn (SZN), Via Po 25, 00198 Rome, Italy
7 Institute of Marine Research, P.O. Box 1870 Nordnes, N-5817 Bergen, Norway
8 Università di Cagliari, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’ambiente, Via Tommaso Fiorelli 1, 09126 Cagliari, Italy
9 UN Environment/Mediterranean Action Plan Coordinating Unit, Barcelona Convention Secretariat, Vas. Konstantinou 48, Athens 11635, Greece
10 Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Herwigstr. 31, 27572 Bremerhaven, Germany
11 Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, 7700 Sandholdt Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, United States of America
12 Department of Geology, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
13 Universität Osnabrück, Fachbereich Mathematik/Informatik, Albrechtstraße 28a, 49076 Osnabrück, Germany
14 Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale (OGS), Borgo Grotta Gigante 42/c, 34010 Sgonico, Trieste, Italy
15 Research Institute for Global Change (RIGC), Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushimacho, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan
16 IFREMER, Laboratoire LER/PAC, immeuble Agostini, ZI Furiani, 20600 Bastia, la Corse, France
17 Biodata Mining Group, Faculty of Technology, Bielefeld University, PO Box 100131, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
18 University of Tartu, Estonian Marine Institute, Mäealuse 14, Tallinn 12618, Estonia
19 Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission, Katajanokanlaituri 6 B, FI-00160 Helsinki, Finland
20 Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Marine Research Centre, Latokartanonkaari 11, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
21 Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SZ, United Kingdom