Experimental Investigation of Spirulina Microalgae Biodiesel with Metal Nanoadditive on Single-Cylinder Diesel Engine

Abstract

Nanoparticles are an emerging concept for increasing fuel properties. The purpose of this research work is to determine the effect of magnesium oxide nanoparticles on the performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines that run on a spirulina microalgae biodiesel blend (B20) as a fuel. The ultrasonication was used to disperse MgO nanoparticles in B20 fuel at various concentrations (25, 50, 75, and 100 ppm). The significant findings indicated that B20+100 blends reduced specific fuel consumption by 20.1% and had a 5.09% higher brake thermal efficiency than B20. B20+100 blends reduced CO, hydrocarbon, and smoke emissions by a maximum of 32.02%, 30.03%, and 26.07%, respectively, compared to B20.

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1. Introduction

Fossil fuels are considered conventional and nonrenewable sources. These fossil fuel resources gradually decrease, and their adverse effects on the atmosphere increase day by day. Diesel engines, in particular, are a significant contributor to major environmental issues such as global warming, ozone depletion, and unpredictable climate change. There are various effective methods for lowering diesel engine emissions, including engine modification, combustion enhancement, and exhaust gas treatment systems. Engine combustion appears to be the most preferred method, as it requires only minimal changes to existing engine systems rather than new designs. This is performed by modifying the fuel injection system, using fuel additives, and adjusting the fuel characteristics. The fast depletion of petroleum fuel stocks and severe environmental impacts have motivated us to seek environmentally friendly alternative energy sources. In comparison to other crops, algae are the most promising source of oil due to their rapid development, capacity to grow in various situations, the potential for larger yields, and similar qualities to standard biodiesel. The amount of oxygen present in a microalgae-based bio-oil is more significant than that in fossil fuels. However, biodiesel has several disadvantages, such as lower fuel atomization and higher viscous nature, resulting in lower $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions and BTE reductions. Recent advancements in nanotechnology have allowed nanotechnology to develop nanosized molecules, which aid in improving thermal properties, thus assisting combustion with its significant volume-surface ratio to improve fuel characteristics and performance while lowering diesel engine emissions [1]. Metal oxide nanoparticles have been used as a viable additive with fuels to enhance their performance and combustion characteristics. The various metal oxide nanoadditives are aluminum, titanium, and zirconium. Manganese, copper, cerium, and zinc have been used as catalysts for complete combustion and reduced emissions from the exhaust. In a single-cylinder diesel engine, they were tested using hinge methyl oil esters and carbon nanotubes. The carbon nanotube blended biodiesel with a concentration between 25 ppm and 50 ppm improved the engine performance with reduced emissions. They conclude that B20 using 40 ppm titanium oxide nanoparticles improved performance and combustion properties [2]. With the use of nanoadditions, engine exhaust emissions were reduced dramatically. The titanium oxide nanoparticle additive with Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel has reduced the brake-specific fuel consumption increasing the brake thermal efficiency [3]. In conjunction with various biodiesel fractions, the impact of titanium oxide on engine performance and emission characteristics was investigated. They discovered a significant enhancement in thermal efficiency and reduced pollutants such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides [4]. The effects of alumina nanoparticles in biodiesel generated from spent cooking oil have been studied. The carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are decreased by 2.94 and 20.56%, respectively, whereas $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions increased by 43.61% [5]. According to the literature review, incorporating nanoparticles into blends is the most inventive strategy for improving performance and emission characteristics. The current study investigates the extraction of oil from spirulina microalgae and its transesterification to methyl ester. The magnesium oxide nanoparticles were mixed with a spirulina methyl ester at various doses, including 25, 50, 75, and 100 ppm. The compression ignition engine’s performance and emission characteristics were assessed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Spirulina Algae Oil

Spirulina represents biomass called cyanobacteria. Spirulina thrives in an alkaline environment at a pH of around 8.5 and above and a temperature around 30°C. They are autotrophic in nature. Biodiesel made from dried spirulina algae would be made available as an excellent replacement fuel for diesel engines. It may thrive in both freshwater and saltwater. Spirulina has a lipid content ranging from 10% to 25% by weight. The primary benefit would be the cost and abundance of this fuel since spirulina algae can be quickly harvested regularly. Because of the consistent availability of this fuel, the demand for it can be easily supplied [6]. The spirulina biomass is shown in Figure 1. Its production can be doubled in less time if grown in controlled climatic conditions. The high lipid content in the algae makes it suitable for the extraction of methyl ester and its use as an alternate fuel. Table 1 shows the biomass and lipid productivity of the selected microalgal species.

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

Table 1

Biomass and lipid productivity of the selected microalgal species.

S. no	Microalgae	Biomass concentration (mg/L)	Lipid content (%)	Lipid productivity (mg/L·d)	Biomass productivity (mg/L·d)
1.	Spirulina	$$610\pm 0.001$$	$$68\pm 0.002$$	$$29\pm 0.001$$	$$43\pm 0.002$$
2.	Chlorella vulgaris	$$367\pm 0.002$$	$$38\pm 0.001$$	$$10\pm 0.001$$	$$26\pm 0.001$$
3.	Volvox carteri	$$226\pm 0.001$$	$$33\pm 0.003$$	$$5\pm 0.003$$	$$16\pm 0.001$$

2.2. Transesterification

In most cases, biodiesel is made by reacting vegetable oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst to form monomethyl esters and glycerine as a by-product. The reaction temperature, the molar ratio of alcohol and oil, the catalyst, the reaction time, and the presence of FFA concentration all influence the conversion of methyl esters from vegetable oil. The temperature of reaction at atmospheric pressure between 45 and 70°C gives maximum yields of methyl ester. The percentage of biodiesel yield mainly depends on the type of transesterification it undergoes. During the transesterification process, the molar ratio of alcohol used plays a vital role in forming methyl esters. Most studies reported that a molar ratio of 5 : 1 yields the maximum biodiesel yield during the transesterification process. The type of catalyst used in the process enhances the reaction during the production of biodiesel. Acid or alkaline catalyst is used depending on the type of transesterification process during the reaction. The reaction time normally is 8-12 hours for acid transesterification to reduce the FFA content below 2%. Then, the process undergoes alkaline transesterification due to alcohol and a catalyst for 6-8 hours for yielding maximum biodiesel. The reaction time of biodiesel yields varies from oil to oil and the type of FFA content in it. The glycerine was the denser liquid, which collects at the bottom after a few hours of settling. This phase was completed within 3-4 hours of settling. After transesterification of spirulina microalgae biodiesel, the viscosity was reduced, which is closer to the diesel.

2.3. Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticle

Magnesium oxide has been the subject of intense study due to its unusual characteristics, including a heavy ionic character, simple stoichiometry, crystal structure, and surface structural defects. Due to the peculiar composition of nanoscale, magnesium oxide possesses unique optical, electrical, electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties. Table 2 indicates the physical and chemical properties of magnesium oxide nanoparticle.

Table 2

Properties of magnesium oxide.

Specification of nanoparticles
Supplier	M/s Sigma-Aldrich
Chemical formula	MgO
Appearance	White powder
Density (g/cm3)	3.6
Melting point (K)	3125
Boiling point (K)	3870
Molar mass (g/mol)	40.304

2.4. Preparation of Samples with Nanoparticle

The nanomixes were made one at a time with B20 made from spirulina methyl ester and the nanoparticle MgO, with B20 concentrations of 25, 50, 75, and 100 ppm added to each blend using an ultrasonicator. Ultrasonication is the most appropriate technique for dispersing nanoparticles in a base solution since it enables the reaggregation of nanoparticles to the nanometre scale. The nanoparticles were scattered in both biodiesel blends, weighted to 25 ppm of volume concentrations, and stretched for 30 minutes in both blended fuels using a 120-watt and 40 kHz ultrasonicator, respectively, to produce nanoparticle-based biodiesel fuel B20+25 ppm of MgO. Biodiesel fuels with mass fractions of 50, 75, and 100 ppm were mixed using the same method. The test fuel qualities were analyzed in the American Society for Testing and Materials standards after the blend was prepared, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Properties of biodiesel and biodiesel with different concentrations of nanoadditives.

Fuel properties	Test method	B20	Biodiesel with nanoparticle
			B20+25	B20+50	B20+75	B20+100
Specific gravity	ASTM D891	0.843	0.852	0.858	0.863	0.868
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s)	ASTM D445	2.41	2.46	2.53	3.01	3.03
Flash point (°C)	ASTM D93	87	85	76	74	71
Calorific value (kJ/kg)	EN 14214	41154	41234	41523	41656	41754
Pour point (°C)	ASTM D97-12	4	3	2	1	1

2.5. Experimental Setup

A single-cylinder, water-cooled diesel engine was used to test the fuel samples. The cylinders are 87.5 mm in diameter and 110 mm in length. With a steady speed of 1500 rpm and a compression ratio of 16.5 : 1, the engine’s maximum performance is 5.2 kW. The injection pressure was 210 bar, with a 23° bTDC injection timing. The diesel engine was inherently related to the dynamometer used to change the load. The load for the engine is between 0% and 100%, with every phase increasing by 25%. The AVL 437 C smoke meter was used in this study. A smoke meter was used to determine the test engine’s smoke opacity. The pollutants produced by the engine are composed of numerous gases and smoke evaluated using a five-gas pollution analyzer. The exhausts of CO, HC, and $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ were examined using a five-gas contaminant analyzer. Table 4 shows that the emissions were measuring instruments with accuracy. A schematic arrangement of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 2.

Table 4

Emissions were measuring instruments with accuracy.

S. no	Instruments	Range	Accuracy
1	Exhaust emission analyzer	CO: 0-10%	$$\text{Vol}\pm 0.01\%$$
		HC: 0-10000 ppm	±10 ppm
		CO2: 0-20%	$$\text{Vol}\pm 0.02\%$$
		$\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$: 0-5000 ppm	±10 ppm
		0–100%	±1%
2	AVL smoke meter	0–100%	±1%

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption

The BSFC is a ratio computed by dividing the amount of fuel spent by the amount of energy produced over a given period. For all test fuels, the variation in brake-specific fuel consumption as a function of load is illustrated in Figure 3. The average drop in BSFC was 4.2%, 13.5%, 18.3%, and 20.1% for MgO concentrations of 25, 50, 75, and 100 ppm, respectively. When B20+100 ppm is substituted for B20 at full load, the BSFC decreases by 20.1%. The BSFC value of B20+100 ppm combinations was found to be lower than that of the other blends. Complete combustion occurs due to the magnesium oxide nanoparticles acting as oxygen boosters, resulting in lower fuel use than pure biodiesel [7].

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.2. Brake Thermal Efficiency

Brake thermal efficiency is related to the engine’s actual braking power and power transmitted to the engine. Figure 4 depicts the percentage load vs. the tested fuel blends’ brake thermal efficiency values. When B20 is compared to B20+25, B20+50, B20+75, and B20+100, the percentage increase in BTE is 1.8, 2.5, 3.1, and 5.09, respectively. At full load, the maximum BTE increased by 5.09% when B20+100 ppm fuel was used. Nanoparticles accelerate the mixing of $A/F$, resulting in more efficient fuel burning. Increased oxygen, increased evaporation, microexplosions, and a larger surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles also contribute to a higher BTE. It was also discovered that increasing the concentration of MgO nanoparticles boosts BTE because heat is released more quickly during the combustion process [8].

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.3. Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide emissions are usually a consequence of insufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber, which prevents the fuel from being completely burnt. Engine speed, fuel type, injection time, injection pressure, and air/fuel ratio are all elements that affect carbon monoxide emissions [9]. Figure 5 shows the variance in CO emissions with load for all of the fuels that were evaluated. B20 emits more carbon monoxide than B20 with MgO nanoparticle combinations because of the lower oxygen concentration of the spirulina methyl ester. The experiment results indicate that the B20+100 ppm fuel produces less carbon monoxide than the other tested fuels. The CO emissions of the B20+100 ppm blend are 32.02% lower than those of B20. The greater concentration of oxides in nanoadditive blend fuels ensures enough oxygen for complete combustion. The complete burning of MgO nanoparticle-mixed SME biodiesel reduces CO emissions.

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.4. Hydrocarbon Emission

When fuel is burned inefficiently and the flame is quenched near the combustion chamber walls, hydrocarbons are formed [10]. Figure 6 depicts the variation in HC emissions as a function of applied load for all test fuels. B20, B20+25, B20+50, B20+75, and B20+100 ppm are used in this proportion. HC emissions were 33, 31, 29, 26, and 23. Compared to B20, the percentage drop in hydrocarbon for B20+100 ppm MgO at maximum load was 30.03%. The experimental results indicate that B20+100 ppm blends had a lower hydrocarbon content than other blends examined. By aiding complete combustion and acting as an oxygen shield, MgO nanoparticles contribute to additional reductions in hydrocarbon emissions by delivering enough oxygen at greater loads to achieve consistent fuel combustion [10].

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.5. Smoke Opacity

Smoke emissions are attributed to an overabundance of oxygen in the fuel mixture, low combustion rate, atomization factors, fuel injection phenomena, and the formation of rich mixer zones [11]. Figure 7 depicts the influence of load on smoke density for different blends. Due to several affluent mixing zones within the combustion chamber, smoke emission increases significantly as load increases, resulting in inadequate combustion and increased smoke opacity. According to the graph, the smoke density for B20+100 ppm blends is less than that for B20 fuel. Compared to B20 at full load, the B20+100 ppm sample reduced smoke opacity by nearly 26.7%. The reduction in smoke pollution resulted from the MgO nanoparticle-blended fuels’ shortened ignition latency, rapid evaporation rate, and enhanced ignition characteristics [12].

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.6. Nitrogen Oxide Emission

$\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ is a chemical molecule generated during the combustion process of an internal combustion engine when nitrogen and oxygen react at elevated temperatures. Figure 8 depicts the variance in $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions as a function of applied load for all test fuels. The graph demonstrates that spirulina methyl ester with magnesium oxide blends emits more $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ than B20. $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions in ppm for B20, B20+25, B20+50, B20+75, and B20+100 were determined to be 785, 815.2, 820, 835, and 851.3, respectively, at maximum load circumstances. The addition of MgO nanoparticles to the B20 blend increased $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions. This is because biodiesel contains more oxygen, and the combustion chamber is heated to a high degree. The thermal process describes the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the combustion chamber at high temperatures through chemical phases. Improved combustion of biodiesel blends with MgO additives results in higher $\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$ emissions, which leads to higher combustion temperatures [13].

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

4. Conclusions

These experiments assessed the impact of a 20% spirulina microalgae biodiesel blend with diesel on magnesium oxide nanoparticles. Tests were done to measure the impact of a spirulina microalgae biodiesel blend of 20% with diesel in magnesium oxide nanoparticles. A B20 mixture was added to MgO nanoparticles at 25, 50, 75, and 100 ppm. By varying the amount of magnesium oxide nanoparticles added to the test for fuel B20, the performance and emissions of a single-cylinder diesel engine were experimentally tested. Spirulina microalgae biodiesel has poor BTE and BSFC fuel properties due to its low calorific value. When MgO was combined with spirulina methyl ester, its catalytic behavior dramatically increased BTE and reduced BSFC.

As a consequence of the experiment, substantial reductions in greenhouse gases such as CO, HC, and smoke were detected. The BSFC percentage was reduced to 20.1% in the B20+100 ppm combination, whereas BTE was raised by roughly 5.09%. In CO, HC, and smoke greenhouse gases, emissions from CO, HC, and smoke dropped by about 32.02%, correspondingly 30.03% and 26.7%, compared to the maximum loaded blend from B20. Because of the rise in the combustion temperature, B20+100 ppm blends of nitrogen oxide are at the maximum load marginally higher than B20. Without incurring additional expenditures, spirulina biodiesel enhanced with magnesium oxide nanoparticles may be utilized in diesel engines to replace diesel.

Glossary

Abbreviations

BTE:Brake thermal efficiency

BSFC:Brake-specific fuel consumption

B20:20% spirulina methyl ester+80% pure diesel

B20+25 ppm:20% spirulina methyl ester+80% pure diesel+25 ppm of MgO

B20+50 ppm:20% spirulina methyl ester+80% pure diesel+50 ppm of MgO

B20+75 ppm:20% spirulina methyl ester+80% pure diesel+75 ppm of MgO

B20+100 ppm:20% spirulina methyl ester+80% pure diesel+100 ppm of MgO

bTDC:Before top dead centre

CO:Carbon monoxide

EDX:Energy-dispersive electron microscope

HC:Hydrocarbon

kHz:Kilohertz

Kw:Kilowatts

MgO:Magnesium oxide

Nm:Nanometer

$\text{N}{\text{O}}_x$:Nitrogen oxide

O:Oxygen

ppm:Parts per million

rpm:Revolution per minute

SMB:Spirulina microalgae biodiesel

SME:Spirulina methyl ester

TiO₂:Titanium oxide

ZrO₂:Zirconium oxide.

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