STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ON THE BATTLEFIELD: THE CASE OF YAVUZ SULTAN SELIM'S EGYPT CAMPAIGN PLANNING

Abstract

It is the most essential condition for leaders and commanders to value the supply chain management at the strategic level and form their plans in this way. So much so that, before a possible conflict is completely uncertain to how it will be and how long it will last, it has become sustainable with a good strategic planning process. The subject of our research, the Ottoman Empire's Egyptian campaign, set up an example for the strategic importance of supply chain management under difficult depth operation and variable climate conditions. When Sultan Selim's Egypt campaign is evaluated with the possibilities and conditions of the period, it will shed light on today's operations.

Headnote

It is the most essential condition for leaders and commanders to value the supply chain management at the strategic level and form their plans in this way. So much so that, before a possible conflict is completely uncertain to how it will be and how long it will last, it has become sustainable with a good strategic planning process. The subject of our research, the Ottoman Empire's Egyptian campaign, set up an example for the strategic importance of supply chain management under difficult depth operation and variable climate conditions. When Sultan Selim's Egypt campaign is evaluated with the possibilities and conditions of the period, it will shed light on today's operations.

Key words: Strategy, Leadership, Supply Chain Management, Logistics, Ottoman Empire.

1.INTRODUCTION

In conventional warfare, the piece of land occupied and targeted by friendly and enemy troops to achieve a military purpose is referred to as the operation area. The back zone is an area where logistical elements are predominant, besides containing many elements that support the operation. The main task of the logistics elements operating in this region is to provide supply, evacuation, and stopover services to the troops they support (Karagöz, 2019).

The supply chain includes all the activities of a product from raw material to the customer/requester. These activities include all the information systems required for raw material and material procurement, production and assembly, storage and stock monitoring, order entry and order management, distribution, delivery to the customer and monitoring and supervising all of these activities. The location of warehouses, distribution centers, production quantities, order dates, inventory policies and shipping decisions is crucial for supply chain success (Kapıcı & Yücel, 2021). The main purpose of supply chain management is to add the most value to the performance of the chain at the lowest possible cost. In other words, it aims to collaborate within the firm and connect with all supply chain partners in order to maximize the efficiency of the supply chain and provide the most benefit to all parties involved.

When the development of the logistics and supply chain is evaluated, it is seen that there has been a change from a non-integrated understanding focused on business functions and logistics movements to an increasingly process-oriented, integrated, information technologyusing and customer-oriented understanding, and this change is continuing (Akyüz, 2021).

Depending on the technological developments, a rapid change is experienced in the global competition environment. Businesses also must keep customer satisfaction at the highest level in order to keep up with this change and to gain superiority in the market. For this, they are obliged to act jointly with all members in the value chain they are involved in. In this concept Supply Chain Management is the management of activities and relations that cover the whole of the organization with all logistics activities and the organization's relations with other organizations, aimed at increasing organizational performance and creating sustainable customer satisfaction (Sayın & Özcan, 2019).

Conceptually, logistics consciously or unconsciously, comes up with different definitions based on different functions in the process from raw material production to consumer unit in order to meet the needs of living things. Regarding the concept, it is not possible to reach a single definition considering the processes it has gone through throughout its history (Oǧuztürk & Çetin, 2012). Logistics activities, in terms of the functions it contains, emerge as the movement of goods and services to the appropriate place, in an appropriate manner and in the shortest time, and in this way, to reach the needs of the needy in the most appropriate time.

The success of military operations is possible first with a good warfare plan and leadership, but with a logistical planning that will enable the army that can support this plan to continue its operations in the further region. This situation confronts us with supply chain management as one of the factors that make the most important contribution to the success of a country's army, regardless of its capabilities.

The Ottoman Empire, which acted with the politics of war and jihad since its emergence on the stage of history, increased its war capacity by being in war since its establishment and gave a military character to its administrative structure. Thanks to this strategic leadership, he pioneered his contemporaries by gaining a great deal of experience in expedition organizations, especially in food and supply issues (İşbilir, 2002).

The purpose of this study is to emphasize how important supply chain management is in military operations. As a military operation, the choice of the Egypt expedition, which was carried out during the Ottoman period, was to address a period in which different geography, climate and logistic capabilities did not develop much, and states did not go to such distant regions at that time. It is considered that the military and logistic planning of this operation will put countries in a difficult position even under today's conditions. The campaign shows great strategic leadership of Ottoman Sultan Yavuz.

2.LITERATURE REVIEW

In supply chain management, all functions forming the chain must be integrated. A series of functions fulfill certain tasks in line with the basic objectives in the delivery of products from the supplier to the end user (Eymen, 2007). Basic Functions of the Supply Chain are demand and order management, purchasing, planning, stock management, warehouse management and shipment/transportation.

Demand and order management is the ability of businesses to understand customer demand and to balance this demand with their supply chain capacity (Lambert & Cooper, 2000). Demand management is the ability of the business to understand the needs of its customers in advance and to adjust its supply chain capacity according to these needs. With demand management, customer needs and production facilities of the enterprise are tried to be balanced (Rexhausena, Pibernik, & Kaiser, 2012).

Purchasing means providing the raw materials, parts and services required for the production of a product or service. The purpose of the purchasing function is to create and follow up purchasing plans based on the trading strategy. The purchasing unit selects suppliers, makes the necessary negotiations and agreements, and establishes partnerships (Stevenson, 2017).

Planning is the task of the planning function to create production plans, material procurement programs to meet customer orders on time, to revise and manage them in a dynamic structure, and to effectively manage production and other operating costs and constraints (Uǧural & Çaǧrı 2020). Required features: creating systematic plans in line with customer demands and sales trends, preparing short-term programs and loom loading based on long-term plans, establishing an integrated supply system with purchasing, reviewing, and evaluating according to the optimization of product design planning constraints, reducing the duration of transition between waiting and preparation in production (Eymen, 2007).

The importance of the supply chain in the production process is to supply the right product at the right time, at the right place and at the right price, as well as offering the right price to protect the interests and goals of the business. This is achieved with effective cost management (Türker, Balyemez, & Biçer, 2005; Uǧural 2020).

The purpose of stock management is to determine the optimum stock and order amount that will ensure that the goods required for profitable production and marketing are available at the desired time and place, in case of changes in the demands and expectations of the customers and the deliveries of the suppliers. In order to manage stocks, first of all, information on stock is needed. Stock refers to stationary material and is stationary resources with potential value (Karagöz & Yıldız, 2015).

Warehouses are places where businesses keep their stocks. They have the function of creating a buffer against imbalances between customer demand and production amount. In other words, they are a bridge between production and marketing units. Many decisions such as the location of the warehouse, interior design, capacity, distance to customers is the subject of warehouse management.

Warehouse management requires a strategic approach and is referred to as strategic storage in many sources. Warehouse management plans are developed for strategic storage. The main purpose of developing a warehouse management plan is to meet the expected demand within the specified time frame at the lowest possible cost (Aghezzaf, 2007).

Businesses want to create their transportation networks in the best and most efficient way so that the flow of products and materials from suppliers to facilities and from facilities to customers can be carried out effectively. These activities are called transport/shipment management. The purpose of transportation management is to ensure that stocks are transported on time and with the least cost (Rexhausena, Pibernik, & Kaiser, 2012). The activities involved in transportation management are to balance between transportation needs and carrying capacity, to determine the most suitable transportation methods and to choose the most suitable one, to adhere to the plans, to follow the procedures and to prepare the transportation plan accordingly.

Road systems shaped according to geography and climatic conditions have had a great economic, military, and social importance throughout history. Roads are of great importance in commercial and economic activities, communication, travel, dispatching armies, and all kinds of transportation. In this context, the Ottoman Empire has established a wide road network, like the Roman, Byzantine and Seljuk State, which prevailed in Anatolia and Rumelia (Sak & Çetin, 2004).

In the Ottoman Empire, the stopovers are accommodation centers formed at certain points on the triple road network both in Anatolia and Rumelia. These roads, which consist of three main routes, namely right, left, and middle branches in Anatolia and Rumelia, are connected to each other by secondary roads (Bozkurt, 1966). In this context there were six main destinations when starting the campaign from the capital city İstanbul.

Accordingly, right destination in Anatolia; It reaches Mecca and Medina via Üsküdar, Gebze, Eskişehir, Akşehir, Konya, Adana, Antakya via Aleppo, and Damascus. The right arm in Anatolia is also known as the pilgrimage route.

Middle destination: It reaches Üsküdar, Gebze, İznik, Bolu, Tosya, Merzifon, Tokat, Sivas, Hasan Çelebi, Malatya, Harput, Diyarbakır, Nusaybin, Mosul and Kirkuk. In addition, this road is called BasraBaghdad Road (Gül, 2011).

The left destination would follow the same route to Merzifon with the middle destination, and from there one road would reach Kars via Hasankale via Lâdik, Niksar, Karahisar-ı Şarkî, Kelkit, Aşkale, Erzurum, and another road to Tabriz.

Istefe via Tekirdaǧ, Malkara, Firecik, Dimetoka, Komotini, Pravishte, Lanzaka, Yenişehir, Izdin (Sak & Çetin, 2004).

The departure and arrival routes of the Ottoman army are different from each other. The arrival route is, on average, half of the departure route. The most important reason for this was that the food and ammunition in the ranges were consumed during the departure, and there was not enough food and ammunition in the ranges on the way back. However, considering the seasonal and geographical conditions and security, the difficulty of these conditions was also considered (Aybet, 2010).

The troops of the Ottoman army were located in different parts of the country. There were only some of the Kapıkulu soldiers in the center. An order was sent to the regiment's commander of the sipahi s and they were ordered to join the army with their troops. Janissaries and other Kapıkulu soldiers in the provinces were also brought to the army by the officers assigned to gather them. The soldiers in the provinces would join the Ottoman army along the campaign route. It was required that the soldiers who came to the army to be fully equipped (Afyoncu, 2019).

During the Egyptian campaign, Ottoman Empire used the same stopover area as in the First World War in general until the Palestine region. However, due to the lack of a strong navy in the region at that time and the lack of danger to the army from the north, the shortest and closest to the sea stopover route, the El Arish region route, was used. However, during the First World War, this road could not be used due to the allied navy in the Eastern Mediterranean, and the stopover roads in the inner region were used (Karagöz, 2019).

3.CAMPAIGN ORGANIZATION

The Ottoman Empire, which was one of the important states in the history of world war in terms of the art of war, has developed its war management structure by continuously increasing its war skills and tactics since its early years. In particular, the administrative and logistical elements are organized and arranged to meet the need for continuous time (Ertaş, 1999). These preparations made by the Ottoman Empire to prepare its army for the expedition are called "Campaign Organization".

It is possible to categorize the activities carried out by the Ottomans for the campaign organization under five main headings: strengthening the border castles, mobilizing the army, providing the accommodation of the soldiers, arranging the transportation roads and infrastructure, and finally arranging the military stopover that constitute the infrastructure of the campaign (Ertaş, 1999).

In the Ottoman Empire, the decision of the campaign was an authority belonging to the sultan. However, the Ottoman sultans had made this decision by consulting with the viziers on the council on various aspects of the expedition before deciding on a campaign. The yield of that year, taxes and other revenues affected the Sultan's will. After the decision of the campaign was taken in the government, a decree was issued to the shires, states, principalities, and the regiment principalities to carry out the above-mentioned activities and the amount of food and cash to be bought was informed.

Preparations made before a war for religious, human, political, economic, and similar reasons have a significant impact on the outcome of the war. These preparations made after the war decision were made include military, administrative, legal, and customary issues. It is necessary for the success of the campaign to make the preparations for a war that will last for months and to make the preparations in a naturally long time and to calculate the finest details (Demirtaş, 2001).

When the decision of a campaign was taken in the Ottoman Empire, the food and supply facilities in the region where the campaign will be made were first put into use. The logistics process was a major problem as the preparations were completed following the decision of the campaign and the transportation to the battlefield would take an average of six months. In order to cope with this problem, the modification of the border fortresses and the roads leading to this region, and the storage of ammunition and supplies on the route to be followed during the campaign were among the measures taken (Kurtaran, 2012). In this context, different ways and methods have been applied throughout the history for the provision of food in the Ottoman Empire. The most used of these is the tax collection method. These taxes, referred to as avârız-ı divaniye and takâlif-i örfiye in Ottoman documents, are versatile and quite diverse (Orat, 2012). To sell grain and amount of grain determined to the stopovers, established along the roads the soldiers will pass, to supply and transport the war materials and necessities such as barley and straw. Finding the workers, animals and provide auxiliary classes to the army under the names of rower and torment if needed. Making fortresses and participating in the expense of the war with the cost of money is one of the main taxes (Kurtaran, 2012).

3.1.Supply services

A number of employees were also needed to meet the needs of the army that would go on campaign, in various fields. These were made up of tradesmen and craftsmen who are generally called army-men. These tradesmen and craftsmen, who would see the supply services of the army, were also procured from various regions of the state as needed. Tradesmen and craftsmen, who were determined as army-men, would join the army with their tools and equipment. In the selection of these officials, attention was paid to their competence in their arts. Selected tradesmen join the army and returned after serving a specified period of time, and other army-men were sent to their places (Kılıç, 1999).

In addition to the supply services of the army, army-men were needed for building bridges on the route or building castles in the conquered regions. These army-men were also used for these works.

The grain and animal feed needed by the Ottoman armies on the campaign were also obtained from the towns on the route.

3.2.Mobilization of army

When it comes to mobilization in the Ottoman army, two concepts come to mind as mobilization of Kapıkulu Soldiers and the Provincial Soldiers (Demirtaş, 2001). The transition of both armies to mobilization and warfare is different.

Since the staff of Kapıkulu soldiers were the same in peace and war, it could be easy for them to switch to warfare. The vacant cadres of this army were reinforced by the recruiters and veteran soldiers whose duty place is in the palace (Aysan & Kan, 1990). The soldiers, who oversaw the Kapıkulu quarry and whose duty was on the border of the Rumelia region, were assigned to ensure the security of the region they were in by not participating in the campaigns to be made in Anatolia (Tezel, Bozan, Göker, & Özçelik, 2015).

The mobilization of the provincial soldiers, on the other hand, is not as simple as the Kapıkulu soldiers, but it can be considered quite complicated because it is carried out by orders. At the time of the campaign, the number of soldiers to be recruited from the states, sanjaks and other regions were ordered by decrees and these orders were noted in the mobilization book (Tezel, Bozan, Göker, & Özçelik, 2015). The orders clearly stated where, when and which unit these soldiers would come under the command of command, and thus the army was provided to gather at the desired place and time (Alpmansu, Hünoǧlu, & Özen, 1995).

For the naval forces in the period of Yavuz Sultan Selim, there were 300 ships in total, together with the newly built ships in the Navy used in the Egyptian Campaign. The naval forces participated in the Egyptian campaign with 20 pieces of barges, 40 galleys, 10 boats and 2 kalitas. These amounts may vary according to various sources. Sultan Selim carried various provisions and equipment to Trabzon with the Navy in the Çaldıran Campaign, but he could not benefit from the navy sufficiently from military and logistical side in the Egypt Campaign. The reason for this is that the pirates found around Rhodes and Cyprus and the ships owned by the Ottoman state at that time were not resistant to severe storms.

3.3.Logistics activities

The Ottomans, who ceased to be a regional state and turned into an empire with Fatih Sultan Mehmet, organized their campaigns after this date to regions that require long transportation time and far from the capital. While the Ottoman Empire embarked on a campaign with weapons, supplies, ammunition, and other necessary materials carried on by the soldiers during its foundation years, during the ascension period, it carried out its campaigns by meeting the necessary needs from the regions called "Stopover" where these needs were met.

3.4.Stopover system

Stopover (Menzil in Ottoman documents), which is an Arabic origin word, means "the place where you are during the cruise and travel at night, mansion", a mansion between two mansions, road, stage ", place of residence, dwelling" (Gökdemir, 2016). There are three stopovers in the Ottoman Empire. These are the "Messenger, Hajj and Food Service stopovers."

Although the stopover organization was used for multiple purposes such as transportation, communication, commercial activities, pilgrimage, and military activities in the Ottoman Empire, it first emerged for the postal organization, namely messengers. The stopover system gained its main importance when the empire started to engage war to places far from the capital with Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Halaçoǧlu, 1981).

"Messenger Stopovers" are used as a communication system. The stopover used by pilgrims on a pilgrimage mission is the " Hajj Stopover " and the stopover used to accommodate the soldiers and meet their needs in the campaigns is called "Subsistence Stopover" (Bozkurt, 1966).

In the Ottoman classical period stopovers, mostly land roads were used during the transportation of logistics needs. Mainly camels were used because they carried more cargo than other animals and were easy to care for. However, at various times, transportation was made from the Danube River in Rumelia and from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Anatolia by seaway. Due to various deficiencies and neglect, problems were experienced from time to time during shipment. During the First World War, Labor Battalions served for transportation activities (Karagöz, 2019).

A stopover organization has been established on the main and secondary roads for the supply, storage, and distribution of I and III class supplies for the campaigns, in areas close to the water source and generally outside the city, where high-standing troops can be accommodated (Halaçoǧlu, 1981). Before the departure for campaign, the required stopover points were determined in accordance with the deployment plan and all kinds of measures were taken. In the plans made and, in the orders, sent, it was clearly written where and how much and how the food items would be taken. On average, a stopover house has been established every 20 km on the campaign route. As a rule, in the depots of the stopovers, 15-day food of 10% of the army and stopover house general stock is always available (Gökdemir, 2016).

During the Egypt campaign, Yavuz Sultan Selim personally gave importance to logistics issues and the stopover points within the stopover organization were chosen by him. Sultan Selim stayed at 104 stopover houses from İstanbul to Egypt during his Egypt campaign. 26 of them are between Damascus and Egypt (Aysan & Kan, 1990). The march started with the departure from Üsküdar on June 5 1516, and ended after the victory of the Battle of Ridaniye on 22 January 1517.

The list of rations collected according to the decree sent to the sanjak chiefs before the expedition is as follows.

* The amount of tax per household is 1,12 bushels of grain. 1/3 of this is collected as flour and 2/3 of it is barley.

*· There is no detailed information about the grain excised and collected (Polat, 2018).

When the ration of the soldiers in the Egypt campaign is examined, the average bread per one soldier is 641 gr (450 gr flour) (if it is not possible to manufacture, rusks were given) and meat, as mutton 192-250 gr (when it comes to beef, the amount increases approximately twice), bulgur was served twice a week as pilaf (Çopur, 2017).

The grains collected during the campaign were used for the supply of Kapıkulu and state soldiers. These supplies were distributed free of charge to some units and at a price to others, and as a result of this distribution, the state treasury gained income. The list of supplies distributed during the campaign is presented at table 2 and 3.

As it can be seen from the tables, 154,959 bushels of the grain collected during the Egyptian Expedition were distributed to the groups and people who participated in the campaign, free for charge. The amount distributed by taking the price constituted 76% of the total amount.

As it can be seen from the tables, 48,778 bushels of the grain collected during the Egyptian Expedition were distributed to the groups and people who participated in the campaign, provided that the price was paid. The amount distributed by taking the price constituted 24% of the total amount. However, among the groups and individuals who paid for, the most striking section are the groomed warriors and the people who command them.

During this campaign, which was recorded as "Campaign of Damascus", which included the Mercidâbık War process and the preRidaniye campaign, 17.255 bushels of flour were from 12 coins and 31.523 bushels of barley from 10 coins and distributed to warriors, technical personnel and individuals who participated in the war. The amount obtained from this distribution to the relevant persons and groups was 522,297 coins (Polat, 2018).

Animal supply was an important part of the campaigns. With the decrees, camels, mules, and buffaloes were requested from the sanjaks in Anatolia and Rumelia in order to keep the grain and other needs of the army ready in the stopovers and to transport the cannons and ammunition of the army. The requested animals were provided by purchase or rental (Öztürk, 2019). There was a considerable number of animals with the army. At the time of the desert crossing, there were approximately sixty thousand soldiers and fifty thousand animals. On average, an animal ate six times the amount of food a man ate. Animals (horse) consumed 5-6.5 kg of barley daily (Aysan & Kan, 1990).

The stopovers were formed as a large stopover, one at 3-4 stopovers. These large stopovers were established in areas close to big cities, and soldiers would rest, bath, do tailor and blacksmith work and receive health services in this stopover (Karagöz, 2019). Health services were carried out by physicians and surgeons for the soldiers of Kapıkulu, and for the state soldiers, they were carried out by the physicians in the region who were assigned by the operation order. At that time, kinan, beeswax, aloe vera, saffron, alum, olive oil and alcohol were used as medicine (Aysan & Kan, 1990). Veterinary works of animals were carried out by blacksmiths among the armymen.

The important issue that stood out in the Ottoman classical period stopover system was due to the different mobilization system in times of peace and campaign. In the period when the state was strong, this system did not stand out as a deficiency, but at the point where the defeats started with the decline, campaign organizations started to create a great burden on the state (Ertaş, 1999).

Although Ottoman Empire state did not make new inventions, it was able to follow all military inventions. After the Tanzimat, the state could not use its military and technological facilities effectively. This situation revealed that the state should go through a radical change in the supply system, that is, the campaign organization. With the new supply system, the state's logistics organization in peace and war has been ensured to be the same. Thus, the Ottoman Army gained a new modern logistics system. The new system was tested in Balkan Wars and was working effectively. This system, which was established as "Stopover Services", was translated from German instructions, and written by General Von der Goltz, who served in the Ottoman army, under the name of "Stopover Services Regulations" in 1911 (Karagöz, 2019).

4.CONCLUSION

Supply Chain Management (SCM) recently turned to very popular subject that it is hard to see a publishing on producing, distribution, trading, customer management and relations, or shipping without seeing an article about SCM or SCM-related issues (Ross 1998). In our study, we evaluated the supply chain management, which is becoming increasingly important and related to all fields in the academic field, with a historical case analysis.

The Egyptian Campaign is a historical operation showing the greatness of the Ottoman army under the perseverance and determination of Yavuz Sultan Selim. According to the circumstances of that time, crossing the Sinai Desert under difficult conditions and successfully surviving two main battles and other minor battles far from the country are very important events. From these points of view, Yavuz's Egypt Campaign is one of the most important wars where logistic support is provided in the best way.

It is seen that the Ottoman state organized and carried out the campaign organization very well at that time. The long-lasting conquest period and the successes gained in the wars that were carried out later in the form of defensive warfare are considered to be the result of not only weapons but also efficient logistics activities.

In today's world, the logistics of armies are carried out in many different ways. Necessary needs are at the service of the armies at the desired place and time (Banabakova & Stoıanov, 2015). SCM procedures recommends the borders of SCM include not only logistics but also all other functions within a company and within a procurement chain to merge customer value and satisfaction (xxxx). Even if our study is to evaluate the execution of a past war as a supply chain, the exact supply of the needs of the soldiers is the same as the supply of the needs of the customers. In logistically difficult times, looking forward by taking lessons from the past will be the most important force that will bring success to our armed forces. Before the war started, planning, a basic function of supply chain management, was carefully done. Planning is the most important of phase of Supply Chain Management (Keely et al., 2001). With the start of the campaign, the demand/order management and purchasing functions are performed by local elements under the command of the Army Headquarters. It is seen that, procurement made from local elements save time (Thomson & Jackson, 2007). Difficult climate conditions and the operation at long distances shown the importance of storage and inventory management during the campaign (Sharma, Abouee Mehrizi, & Sartor, 2019).

The Egypt campaign which was conducted 5 Centuries ago (15161517) is important for the current contemporary supply chain management and the strategic management of modern conventional warfare. Strategic management of supply chain management on the battlefield will shall light on leaders and commanders for the execution of war at all the following levels.

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