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Abstract
Viruses are omnipresent, yet the knowledge on drivers of viral prevalence in wild host populations is often limited. Biotic factors, such as sympatric managed host species, as well as abiotic factors, such as climatic variables, are likely to impact viral prevalence. Managed and wild bees, which harbor several multi-host viruses with a mostly fecal–oral between-species transmission route, provide an excellent system with which to test for the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on viral prevalence in wild host populations. Here we show on a continental scale that the prevalence of three broad host viruses: the AKI-complex (Acute bee paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus and Israeli acute paralysis virus), Deformed wing virus, and Slow bee paralysis virus in wild bee populations (bumble bees and solitary bees) is positively related to viral prevalence of sympatric honey bees as well as being impacted by climatic variables. The former highlights the need for good beekeeping practices, including Varroa destructor management to reduce honey bee viral infection and hive placement. Furthermore, we found that viral prevalence in wild bees is at its lowest at the extreme ends of both temperature and precipitation ranges. Under predicted climate change, the frequency of extremes in precipitation and temperature will continue to increase and may hence impact viral prevalence in wild bee communities.
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1 University of Gent, Department of Plants and Crops, Gent, Belgium (GRID:grid.5342.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 2069 7798)
2 UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department Community Ecology, Halle, Germany (GRID:grid.7492.8) (ISNI:0000 0004 0492 3830); iDiv, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany (GRID:grid.9647.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 7669 9786)
3 University of Bern, Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, Bern, Switzerland (GRID:grid.5734.5) (ISNI:0000 0001 0726 5157)
4 University of Bern, Institute of Bee Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, Bern, Switzerland (GRID:grid.5734.5) (ISNI:0000 0001 0726 5157); European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (GRID:grid.483440.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 1792 4701)
5 Universidad de Murcia, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Murcia, Spain (GRID:grid.10586.3a) (ISNI:0000 0001 2287 8496)
6 University of Gent, Department of Plants and Crops, Gent, Belgium (GRID:grid.5342.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 2069 7798); Universidad de Murcia, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Murcia, Spain (GRID:grid.10586.3a) (ISNI:0000 0001 2287 8496)
7 Universidad de Murcia, Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física, Facultad de Veterinaria, Murcia, Spain (GRID:grid.10586.3a) (ISNI:0000 0001 2287 8496); Universidad de La Laguna, Departamento de Biología Animal, Edafología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, La Laguna, Spain (GRID:grid.10041.34) (ISNI:0000000121060879)
8 University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, Center for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Oslo, Norway (GRID:grid.5510.1) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 8921)
9 Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute for Biology, Halle (Saale), Germany (GRID:grid.9018.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 0679 2801); University of Pretoria, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Pretoria, South Africa (GRID:grid.49697.35) (ISNI:0000 0001 2107 2298)
10 University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, Center for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Oslo, Norway (GRID:grid.5510.1) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 8921); Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Department of Landscape and Biodiversity, Ås, Norway (GRID:grid.454322.6) (ISNI:0000 0004 4910 9859)
11 Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia (GRID:grid.16697.3f) (ISNI:0000 0001 0671 1127)
12 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Zagreb, Department for Biology and Pathology of Fish and Bees, Zagreb, Croatia (GRID:grid.4808.4) (ISNI:0000 0001 0657 4636)
13 Cyprus International University, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Nicosia, Turkey (GRID:grid.440833.8) (ISNI:0000 0004 0642 9705); European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy (GRID:grid.483440.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 1792 4701)
14 Hacettepe University, Department of Biology, Ankara, Turkey (GRID:grid.14442.37) (ISNI:0000 0001 2342 7339)
15 INRAE, Unité Abeilles et Environnement, Avignon, France (GRID:grid.507621.7)
16 Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Laboratory of Bee Diseases, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw, Poland (GRID:grid.13276.31) (ISNI:0000 0001 1955 7966)
17 Imperial College London, Department of Life Sciences, Ascot, UK (GRID:grid.7445.2) (ISNI:0000 0001 2113 8111)
18 University of Leipzig, Molecular Evolution and Animal Systematics, Institute of Biology, Leipzig, Germany (GRID:grid.9647.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 7669 9786)
19 Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute for Biology, Halle (Saale), Germany (GRID:grid.9018.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 0679 2801)
20 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden (GRID:grid.6341.0) (ISNI:0000 0000 8578 2742)