Synchronous and Futuristic Views on the Application of Silver Nanoparticles: A Journey towards Green Synthesis

Abstract

Historically, silver has been recognized as a powerful antibacterial agent with a broad spectrum of functions, and it has been employed safely in healthcare for several years. It seems that the incorporation of silver into embedded medical devices may be advantageous when particular genetic features, including such antibacterial behavior, are needed for the device to function. According to current and prior bacterial studies, it appears that the toxicity against bacteria was significantly more significant than the toxicity against human cells. Silver nanoparticles are nanoparticles with sizes ranging between one and one hundred nanometers (nm) in size. When it comes to molecular diagnostics, therapies, and equipment that are employed in a wide range of medical procedures, silver nanoparticles have a number of unique qualities that make them very useful. The physical and chemical approaches are the two majority ways for the creation of silver nanoparticles. The challenge with chemical and physical approaches is that the synthesis is complicated and can result in harmful compounds being absorbed onto the surfaces of the materials. In order to address this, the biological technique offers a viable alternative solution. Bacteria, fungus, and plant extracts are the three principal biological systems concerned in this process. A complete overview of the mechanism of action, manufacture, and uses in the medical area, as well as the healthcare and ecological concerns that are believed to be produced by these nanoparticles, is provided in this paper. The emphasis is on the proper and effective synthesis of silver nanoparticles even while exploring their numerous promising utility and attempting to assess the current status in the debates over the toxicity concerns that these nanoparticles pose, as well as attempting to reflect the needs in the debates over the toxicity concerns that these nanoparticles pose.

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1. Introduction

When applied to science and technology, ecological nanotechnology has proven to be successful in providing answers for problems in a variety of fields, including healthcare and catalysis, as well as industrial and farming applications. Nanostructures are the primary concern for all applications of nanotechnology, regardless of where they are found in nature, and the size of nanoparticles (NPs) determines their characteristic qualities. For thousands of years, silver and its derivatives have been utilized as antibacterial and medicinal agents for various purposes. When storing water, food, and wine, the early Greeks and Romans utilized silverware in order to prevent decomposition. Historically, Hippocrates employed silver concoctions to cure ulcers and speed the healing of wounds. Silver nitrate was also utilized for pain management and instrument disinfecting [1–3]. Silver nanoparticles are well-known for their broad antibacterial spectrum and excellent antimicrobial activity; they are capable of killing a wide range of organisms even at extremely low concentrations. Silver, which is really a transition metal in the same group as copper and gold, is a smooth, white, glossy element with significant electrical and thermal conductivity [4–7]. Before it was recognized that bacteria are agents of infection, it was well-known for its medicinal and therapeutic effects, as well as its anti-inflammatory properties. Biotechnology, on the other hand, is concerned with the molecular, hereditary, and cellular processes that are involved in the development of medications for agricultural use [8]. It is possible that these latest updates in the farming sector will make a contribution to overcoming the challenges posed by climate change in terms of food security in their own right. Farming is the foundation of emerging countries; 60 percent of the population depends on their livelihood. Silver nanoparticles, in addition to their most well-studied antimicrobial and anticancer properties, have gained attention for their potential use in a variety of other cutting-edge clinical applications such as wound healing, tissue repair, tooth material filling, vaccine adjuvants (such as insulin), antidiabetic agents, and bioimaging [9–25]. In addition, we will provide a brief overview of these biomedical applications in this study [9–18]. On a regular basis, various illness organisms such as the Avian influenza virus, HIV/AIDS, the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), the Ebola virus, and the zica virus are exposed to the environment, making it difficult to cure them [19]. Numerous studies are concentrating their efforts on employing silver nanoparticles as a method to combat these diseases because of their distinctive physical-chemical and biological features. This paper presents an objective evaluation of the usage of silver nanoparticles and their potential toxicity, as well as insights into the more profound significance of these findings for medical practice and research.

2. Applications of Silver Nanoparticles

2.1. Applications of Silver Nanoparticles in Pharmacy, Medicine, and Dentistry

(a) Dermatitis treatment and HIV-1 propagation suppression [20]

(b) Peptic ulcer and acne medication [21]

(c) Antimicrobial agent used to treat contagious organisms [22]

(d) Remotely controlled laser intensity induces microcapsule aperture [23]

(e) Nanocomposite with a silver medal for cell labeling [20]

(f) Cancerous cells imaging at the molecular level [24]

(g) Spectrum analysis of improved Raman scattering (SERS) [25]

(h) Identifying viral components (SERS and silver nanorods) [26]

(i) Hospital fabric finishing (surgical nightgown and aspect mask) [27]

(j) Bone cement additives [20]

(k) Stockings for orthopedic use [28]

(l) Wound treatment with hydrogel [29]

(m) Polymerizable alveolar material additive silver-loaded SiO₂ nanoparticles [30]

(n) Composite resin filler with a patent (dental resin composite) [28]

Polythene tubes bearing fibrin sponges were placed in Ag nanoparticles dispersion and allowed to dissolve. Using antibacterial agents, silver medal nanoparticles are employed for a variety of purposes, from cleaning medical devices and household appliances to water purification [1–6]. Furthermore, this gave the textile industry the confidence to use AgNPs in a variety of textile applications. The antibacterial effect of AgNPs in cotton fibers towards Escherichia coli was demonstrated by the researchers [7]. Silver nanoparticles were discovered to catalyze the chemiluminescent from the luminol–hydrogen peroxide system exhibiting catalytic activity superior to that of Au and Pt colloid, demonstrating superior catalytic activity [8]. Currently, the inkjet technique has been employed to fabricate flexible electronic circuits at the depression toll, and numerous research has been published in recent years to support this claim [9–11]. Due to the extreme homogeneity of the nanosized metal particles scattered throughout the inks and the electrical conductivity of its nanosized metallic particles, nanosized metal particles like Au or Ag are indispensable for the fabrication of electronic circuits. AgNP’s with minute size can be used frequently, having a high electrical conductivity, making them suitable for use in the construction of electronic circuits. Nanoparticles should be sintered in order to achieve high electrical conductivity in electronic circuits throughout the manufacturing process.

2.2. Bactericide

The antibacterial activity of Ag nanoparticles toward bacteria from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains may be attributable to either (I) the establishment of a pore in the cell rampart that also consequently results in the escape of cellular substance or (II) the silver-grey ion perforate through ion channels that does not damage the cell tissue layers but moreover denatures the ribosome as well as inhibits the expression of enzymes containing silver-grey ions. AgNPs play an important role throughout the respiratory chain by interfering with the action of enzymes that are attached to the membranes [12].

2.3. Fungicide

Severe fungal infections have had a significant role in the rising frequency of a certain disease, as well as the increasing mortality of immunocompromised people in recent years [15]. Candida species, among the most common pathogens responsible for fungal infections, are among the most overlooked. It frequently causes nosocomial infection, which can result in a death rate of up to 40% in hospitalized patients [16]. A total of 44 antifungal strains of 6 fungal species were tested by Sun et al. to establish the antifungal effect of silver nanoformulation [17]. According to the literature, AgNPs are effective against Candida glabrata, Candida albicans, Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, and T. mentagrophytes in a potent manner. Several recent studies have demonstrated that AgNPs mediated by Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum L.) have antifungal efficacy against pathogenic fungal infections in humans [18]. As a result, AgNPs are believed to be a strong and rapid-acting antifungal against a broad spectrum of widespread fungus, including those belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Candida, and Saccharomyces.

2.4. Antiviral Agent

In particular, the cytoprotective qualities of silver are well-known, and it has been used to block the contact of the human immunodeficiency virus with host cells [19]. Agonist nanoparticles (AgNPs) can also be utilized to avoid infection following surgery [20]. Recent investigations have revealed that AgNPs contact HIV-1 by binding predominantly to the gp120 glycoprotein. The minimal contact of AgNPs with the virus concretely limits the virus’s ability to attach to host cells [21]. The use of a luciferase-based pseudovirus entrance experiment demonstrated that AgNPs effectively blocked viral entry by interfering with the integrity of the virus. According to these findings, AgNPs are very effective microbicides towards SARS-CoV-2; nevertheless, they should be handled with care due to their cytotoxic actions as well as the possibility of destabilising natural ecosystems if they are not properly disposed of [31].

3. Medical Devices

3.1. Wound Dressing

When it comes to topical applications, such as wound care, burn treatment, and infection prevention creams [22], AgNPs have a lot of potentials. AgNPs are widely used in medical equipment and implants, and their properties are well understood. In addition, they are being integrated into consumer goods like colloidal silver gel as well as silver-embedded fabrics, which are currently being used in athletic equipment, among other things. In the healing of wounds or burns, silver-coated biomedical equipment, implants, or textile fibers are used, as well as on glass windows and similar surfaces, to keep the environment clean and sanitary. Given that metallic AgNPs are highly effective microbicidal agents, they have garnered considerable attention in a variety of applications ranging between paints and textiles. Figure 1 illustrates the silver nanoparticles.

[figure(s) omitted; refer to PDF]

3.2. Catheters

The bioactive AgNPs are deposited on the inside of the plastic catheters. The scientists created an application approach that resulted in a thin (hundred nm) coating of silver nanoparticles on the outside of the catheters after applying the nanoparticles. They are biocompatible because they are nontoxic and have the ability to release categorical and prolonged relinquishment of silver at the insertion site [23–25]. In these catheters, the threat of infection is greatly reduced owing to the consequential in vitro antimicrobial action caused by the prohibition of biofilm shaping using Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, Staphylococci aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, species Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans.

3.3. Bone Cement

Bone cement containing AgNPs and the additive polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) has been developed. These bone cements are eager to also have efficacious antibacterial agents toward methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis and S. aureus. They also demonstrated cognitively challenged biofilm magnification in the presence of these bacteria [27]. Because of the inclusion of AgNPs in bone cement, it has antibacterial properties. Bone cement is a substance that is used by orthopedic surgeons for annexing prostheses such as hip and knee replacements. Infection rates associated with joint supersession surgery are significant, ranging from 1.0 to 4.0 percent on average [28]. As a result of the spread of antibiotic resistance, the use of antibiotics is becoming increasingly restricted. This study indicated that nanosilver-PMMA bone cementum reduces the comparative incidence of resistance through a variety of mechanisms. It also received recognition because of its natural antibacterial activity and low cytotoxic potential.

3.4. Tumor

A build-up of reactive oxygen coinage may cause serious damage to biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, and DNA, which can ultimately result in the death of the cell in some cases. Cell death and oxidative stress have been shown to be induced by AgNPs in skin cancer cells and in humans’ fibrosarcoma, according to recent findings. AgNPs have also been shown to activate the p53-mediated apoptotic pathway, which would be the pathway via which the vast majority of chemotherapeutic medicines cause apoptosis [29, 30]. Additional research has been conducted on the antiproliferative properties of piperidine derived from Piper nigrum towards cancer cell lines. Silver nanoparticles decreased by extracts of Piper longum could have a potent cytotoxic effect on the HEp-2 cell line when employed at a low dose. As a result, silver nanoparticles can be used in the creation of anticancerous drugs.

3.5. Water Purification

As a result of their improved antibacterial properties, AgNPs can be used for water treatment in water filtering systems. In accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, silver nanotechnology can be used in dihydrogen monoxide water treatment. Antimicrobial compounds are being considered for application in biomedical devices and healthcare and also in the victuals and hygiene sectors, in order to prevent the multiplication of harmful microorganisms on the surface of the equipment or on the surface of the product. Chemically resistant antimicrobial coatings should have high antibacterial efficacy while also being simple to manufacture and have low toxicity. Silver and silver-containing surfaces have long been used as antimicrobial coatings on a variety of surfaces [32, 33].

3.6. Catalytic Function

With the use of AgNPs produced from the plant Guggulu tiktakam Kashayam, the researchers were able to reduce methylene blue (MB) by fourfold [34], which they found to be highly effective in the reduction of MB. As previously reported, Waghmode et al. investigated the strengthened catalytic activity upon on decrease of benzyl cluster chloride through Acacia nilotica pod-mediated AgNP’s altered glassy carbon electrode even though compared to the activity of glassy carbon as well as metallic silver electrodes in the presence of Acacia nilotica pod-mediated AgNP’s altered glassy carbon electrode [35, 36]. The decomposition of methylene blue by AgNPs in the presence of Gloriosa splendid extract has been reported [37]. A study conducted by Kreibig and Vollmer used Triticum aestivum extract to synthesize AgNPs and found that AgNPs are an effective nanoaccelerator in the lowering of hydrogen peroxide. AgNPs mediated by plant extracts have also been found to be effective in the degradation of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) onto 4-aminophenol (4-AP) [38].

3.7. Biosensors

It has been shown [38–41] that the size, shape, and dielectric mass medium surrounding AgNPs have a significant impact on their plasmonic capabilities. This dependence may, as a result, contribute to the usability of AgNPs in biosensor applications. This is because the refractive strength of biomolecules is greater than that of buffer storage solutions; as previously stated, surface plasmon reverberance (SPR) is used to measure the performance of biosensors that comprise plasmonic nanoparticles (local Earth surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)) and commercialized thin, plasmonic Dixie films [42]. They have a greater spatial resolution than SPR biosensors because they are less sensitive to changes in bulk refractive index, which reduces the amount of error introduced by the shift in bulk refractive index [43]. The variously shaped AgNPs are used in biosensors to detect different types of interactions between them. Biotin-streptavidin interactions were detected using the surface-coated nanobiosensor [44], which was developed to detect interactions among biomolecules. Silver nanoparticles with cubical or rhombohedral shapes were also employed to detect protein interactions in a variety of applications [45–48]. Recently, findings have been published on the use of AgNPs as predicted biosensors in cancer cells. Scientists have also established the use of nanosilver covered with silica as biosensors for the identification of bovine blood serum albumin (BSA), according to their findings.

3.8. Bioimaging

As a result of their plasmonic features, AgNPs may be identified using a wide range of optical microscopy methods, making them an excellent alternative to routinely employ fluorescent organic dyes that disintegrate throughout imaging (photobleaching). In addition to being photostable, AgNPs have the potential to be used as biological probes to monitor continuously dynamic events over an extended length of time. Authentic-time research of AgNPs was demonstrated by Raja et al. to track early embryonic development in terms [49]. Such minute metallic nanoparticles possess unique plasmonic features, which in turn inspire its application as a medicinal agent. Two approaches are used to use silver nanoparticle (AgNP) technology for bioimaging: incubating AgNPs with cells in order to assess physical contacts and uptake or functionalizing biomolecule on the surface of AgNPs in order to increase selectivity for the cell membrane. The former is more straightforward, but the latter necessitates the use of a categorical biofunctionalization molecule. The effects of AgNPs on neuroblastoma cells were investigated in the dark using a night-field illumination system. After being cultured with macrophages for a short period of time, AgNPs attached to iron oxide nanoparticles were imaged using two-photon imaging to determine whether they had been taken up by the cells [49–51].

3.9. Agricultural Applications

Nanosilver is the nanoparticle that has been investigated and used the most in biosystems. Significant inhibitory and bactericidal properties, as well as a wide range of antimicrobial activity, have been demonstrated in studies with this compound. Comparing silver nanoparticles to bulk silver, silver nanoparticles with a high surface area and a considerable fraction of surface atoms exhibit a significant antibacterial effect. AgNPs have been investigated as a viable contender for increasing crop productivity by promoting seed germination as well as plant growth, and they have shown promise. It is possible that the amount of Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) will have an impact on the growth rate of plants, either positively or negatively. Bacterial infections are another factor contributing to major crop yield losses around the world. AgNPs have been shown to be effective against bacteria that cause plant disease. When tested against the bacteria Erwinia carotovora, AgNPs show significantly more antimicrobial property over conventional antibiotics. Double capsulated nanosilver was created using a chemical process of silver ion with the assistance of a physical method, a reducing agent, and stabilisers, among other ingredients. It kills bacteria that are harmful to plants in planter soils as well as hydroponics systems. Furthermore, silver is a highly effective plant growth booster [52–66].

4. Miscellaneous Applications of Silver Nanoparticles

4.1. Water Treatment

Using leaf infusion freshly at 80°C bud from the genus Anacardium occidentale, we were able to create stable AgNPs that were used in a unique inquiry for the detection of chromium ions in common water. Whenever the concentration of silver nanoparticles made using Prosopis juliflora leaf extract (10 mg) was combined with 100 ml of wastewater after six h and step-ups as the period of brooding growth approached, the number of bacteria decreased. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are incredibly poisonous to microorganisms. As a result, they exhibit potent antibacterial properties against a broad spectrum of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi, among others. Silver nanoparticles, which are effective antibacterial agents, have been widely employed in the disinfection of drinking water [52–59].

5. Scientific Applications

(a) Silver nanomaterials can be used in a variety of scientific coatings due to their outstanding physical, chemical, and optical holding properties, among other things. Depending on the size, arrangement, and chemical nature of the nanomaterial, these qualities can be drastically different from one another

(b) Metallic nanoparticles, especially nanosilver, display surface plasmon resonance (SPR) when exposed to light, resulting in SPR efflorescence in the ultraviolet half-dozen wavelength range, which can be used to detect the particles [54]

(c) An outcome of the exchanges among incident light and an unbound electron throughout the conduction band of a nanomaterial, the SPR is produced by the nanomaterial

(d) Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peaks are characterized by their breadth and location, which are determined by the size, structure, and surface features of the nanomaterial [55]

(e) Silver nanoparticles are commonly used for surface improved Raman scattering, and they are particularly effective (SERS). Whereas if analyte molecules were adsorbed on a hard metal surface, the Raman scattering by the analyte molecules might be amplified, resulting in an increase in the enhancement factor, which would allow for sufficient sensitivity to identify single molecules [67–73]

(f) Consequently, silver nanomaterials have the potential to be used in sensing applications such as the identification of deoxyribonucleic acid chains [56, 57]

(g) Colorimetric detector for histidine, real-time probing of membrane transport in living microbial cells, beam desorption mess spectrographic characterization of peptides, and a colorimetric detector for histidine [58, 59]

(h) Colorimetric detector for assessing ammonia water content biosensors enabling identification of glucose sensors with medical diagnostics [60, 61]

(i) Silver nanoparticles are also expected to be used in metal-improved fluorescence activities, according to recent reports. When metallic nanostructures are used in conjunction with fluorophores, their intrinsic spectral characteristics can be changed [74–78]

(j) The closeness of metallic nanosilver resulted in an increase in the strength of low quantum proceed fluorophores due to the presence of metallic nanosilver. Fluorophore quenching over small periods, geographic change of the incident light theatre of operations, and vicissitudes in the radioactive decay rate are all factors contributing to the burden [62]

(k) Using nano-Ag in purposes including such immunochemical assays and DNA/RNA detection is made possible by the device characteristics described above. Since it was previously stated, the airfoil features of the Earth have a significant impact on the features of the silver nanomaterial used in this research [64–66, 79–83]

(l) Using an alkanethiol to modify the surface of a silver nanooptical prism, which may make them a suitable candidate for streptavidin as well as antibiotin sensing, as well as for the treatment of Alzheimer’s illness is a promising approach [84–88]

6. Conclusions

Silver nanoparticles have diverse physical properties that distinguish them from other biomaterials that are regularly used in dental care, and they have the potential to be used in a variety of applications, including restorative dentistry, prosthetic dental services, endodontics, implantology, oral cancers, and periodontology. Because of their antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, silver nanoparticles have tremendous potential. Inclusion of AgNPs reduces biofilm development on nanocomposite, avoiding microleakage and supplementary caries. The precise mechanisms of connection with silver nanoparticles to bacterial cells must be clarified, as well as how the surface area of nanoparticles impacts its killing function. Animal models and clinical trials must also be conducted in order to gain a better knowledge of the antimicrobial performance of silver dressings and the toxicity of silver coatings, if any are used, among other things. As a result, care must be made to use this marvel wisely and in a decent, effective, and efficient manner while also comprehending its limitations and taking every precaution to ensure that it does not hurt people or the ecosystem. Overall, silver nanoparticles look to be potential in pharmaceutical, biomedical, and related disciplines owing to their unique silver and nanosized features, provided safety evidence is generated to verify their safety while similarly ruling out their toxicity.

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