Introduction
Landscape is subject to increasing anthropogenic transformation in land use or land cover, which can be interpreted both locally and globally ([2], [39]). Analysis and evaluation of the rate of these changes are feasible when reliable cartographic resources recording land use and types of land cover through time are available. Beside the educational value, the interpretation of these resources is also important from the economic point of view, as it makes possible the optimization of contemporary economic processes ([35]). Analysis of changes in land use over time also enables to assess the impact of natural factors - both positive (fertile soils, small height differences, mild climate, etc.) and negative (flooding, mass-movements, volcanic eruptions, pest gradation, natural fires, etc.) on the landscape.
Landscape diversification has increased in the past decades, often resulting in disturbances to the functioning of ecosystems ([13], [16]). Typological diversification of landscapes has been occurring over time because of human economic activities through centuries, determining the development of specific anthropogenic ecological systems within various landscape zones ([8], [50], [30], [29], [7], [33]). Such activities include urbanization, intensification of agriculture, forest cutting for production and/or land abandonment ([35]), whose impact varies regionally depending on local socio-economic and natural conditions ([34]).
The main types of landscape change over Europe and their driving factors have been widely discussed in a recent review ([35]). Similar analyses have been carried out in the Carparthians ([14], [29]), and in areas adjacent to the Beskid Mountains in Poland ([4]), mainly focused on changes in forest areas and the farming use of land. Changes in the forest cover over the past 180 years have been examined in western and northern Carpathians ([19], [20], [21]).
Carpathian mountain range covers more than 190.000 km2 throughout eastern Europe, extending for 1300 km in length and 120-350 km in width, and includes a unique combination of ecosystems. The Carpathians run through as many as 7 countries: Slovakia (about 71 % of its area), Romania (ca. 47%), Czechia (ca. 8%), Hungary (ca. 8%), Poland (over 6%), Ukraine, Austria and Serbia. As a consequence, different models of land management, determined both historically and culturally, have appeared and still exist in different parts of the Carpathians ([29]), resulting in regional differences in changes in ecosystems and landscapes.
Changes in specific landscape elements (forests, abandoned land, meadows, hydrographic networks, cultural elements) have been analysed throughout the Carpathian range with different degrees of detail ([18], [32], [20]). However, most studies were large-scales investigations based on either cartographic resources or satellite- and aerial imagery aimed at quantifying changes in forest cover ([21], [29]). Contrastingly, few studies have focused on changes in species composition of forests in the Silesian and Zywiec Beskid Mountains, which are part of the Polish Carpathians.
The aim of this paper was to determine the impact of natural and historical-cultural factors on forest ecosystem transformations in the Silesian and Zywiec Beskid Mountains over the period 1848-2014. An accurate assessment of landscape changes was carried out in two small mountainous areas (
Materials and methods
Description of the study area
The Beskid range (Western Carpathians) stretches for about 600 km from the Bečva River in the west to the Cheremosh River in the east, and reaches a width of about 50-70 km. We selected two research areas (the Barania Góra Range and Racza Range, each covering about 45 km2) situated in the Western Beskids (49° 32′ 45″ N, 18° 26′ 51″ E - Fig. 1), both characterized by medium- and low mountain relief with steep slopes (mean elevation > 800 m a.s.l.). The basement is made from formations of the Godula Nappe and the Magura Nappe of the Carpathian Flysch Belt. The areas span over three vertical climatic zones, namely, moderate warm (with mean temperature > 6 °C), moderate cool (4-6 °C) and cool (
Enlarge this image.Fig. 1 - Location of the two surveyed area (Barania Góra Range and Racza Range) in the Polish Carpathians.
Results
Changes in forest and non-forest cover in years 1848-2014
In both study areas, the forest cover grew systematically at the expense of non-forest areas in the period 1848-2014 due to the abandonment of agriculture (Tab. 2, Tab. 3, Fig. 2, Fig. 3). The increase in forest cover in the Racza Range was higher than that observed in the Barania Góra Range (16.7 % vs. 11.8 %, respectively). The greatest changes in the Barania Góra Range, affecting 6.8 % of the examined region, took place between 1933 and 1960, whereas in the Racza Range forest cover changed continuously since 1933 and involve 13.9 % of the investigated area.
Tab. 2 - Changes in land cover between 1848 and 2014. (FA): Forest Area; (FPL): Forest Percentage of Landscape; (NFP): Number of Forest Patches; (MFA): Maximal Forest Patches Area; (NA): Non-forest Area; (NPL): Non-forest Percentage of Landscape; (NNP): Number of Non-Forest Patches; (MNA): Maximal Non-Forest Patches Area.
| Range | Time section | FA (ha) | FPL (%) | NFP | MFA (ha) | NA (%) | NPL (%) | NNP | MNA (ha) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barania Góra | 1848 | 3699.1 | 82.1 | 9 | 3693.9 | 807.2 | 17.9 | 142 | 165.7 |
| 1879 | 3707.5 | 82.3 | 2 | 3706.5 | 798.8 | 17.7 | 95 | 174.0 | |
| 1933 | 3840.8 | 85.2 | 1 | 3848.1 | 665.5 | 14.8 | 83 | 84.6 | |
| 1960 | 4145.3 | 92.0 | 12 | 4116.3 | 361.0 | 8.0 | 100 | 58.6 | |
| 1979 | 4213.9 | 93.5 | 14 | 4217.8 | 292.4 | 6.5 | 151 | 38.0 | |
| 2014 | 4230.2 | 93.9 | 18 | 4226.0 | 276.1 | 6.1 | 106 | 25.4 | |
| Racza | 1848 | 3137.8 | 68.8 | 17 | 2994.7 | 1423.0 | 31.2 | 89 | 462.3 |
| 1885 | 3164.0 | 69.4 | 14 | 2819.8 | 1396.8 | 30.6 | 49 | 435.8 | |
| 1933 | 3262.5 | 71.5 | 15 | 2627.8 | 1298.3 | 28.5 | 33 | 454.9 | |
| 1975 | 3592.2 | 78.8 | 48 | 3530.0 | 968.6 | 21.2 | 89 | 394.5 | |
| 1979 | 3619.4 | 79.4 | 79 | 3292.1 | 941.4 | 20.6 | 140 | 353.7 | |
| 2014 | 3899.7 | 85.5 | 30 | 3853.6 | 661.1 | 14.5 | 66 | 115.5 |
Tab. 3 - Dynamics of land cover changes between 1848 and 2014. (CF): Changes of Forest Area; (CFA): Changes of Forest Area relative to Total Area; (CFT): Changes of Forest Area relative to Forest Area in 1848; (CPF): Percentage changes of Forest Area between time section t+1 and t; (CN): Changes of Non-forest Area; (CAN): Changes of Non-forest Area in relations to Total Area; (CNT): Changes of Non-forest Area in relations to Non-forest Area in 1848; (CPN): Percentage changes of Non-forest Area between time section t+1 and t.
| Range | Time interval | CF (ha) | CFA (%) | CFT (ha) | CPF (ha) | CN (ha) | CNA (%) | CNT (ha) | CPN (ha) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barania Góra | 1848-1879 | 8.4 | 0.2 | 8.4 | 0.2 | -8.4 | -0.2 | -8.4 | -1.0 |
| 1879-1933 | 133.6 | 3.0 | 142.0 | 3.6 | -133.6 | -3.0 | -142.0 | -16.7 | |
| 1933-1960 | 304.5 | 6.8 | 446.2 | 7.9 | -304.5 | -6.8 | -446.2 | -45.8 | |
| 1960-1979 | 68.6 | 1.5 | 514.8 | 1.7 | -68.6 | -1.5 | -514.8 | -19.0 | |
| 1979-2014 | 16.3 | 0.4 | 531.1 | 0.4 | -16.3 | -0.4 | -63.8 | -5.6 | |
| Racza | 1848-1885 | 26.2 | 0.6 | 26.2 | 0.8 | -26.2 | -0.6 | -26.2 | -1.8 |
| 1885-1933 | 98.5 | 2.2 | 124.7 | 3.1 | -98.5 | -2.2 | -124.7 | -7.1 | |
| 1933-1975 | 329.7 | 7.2 | 454.4 | 10.1 | -329.7 | -7.2 | -454.4 | -25.4 | |
| 1975-1979 | 27.2 | 0.6 | 481.6 | 0.8 | -27.2 | -0.6 | -481.6 | -2.8 | |
| 1979-2014 | 280.3 | 6.1 | 761.9 | 7.7 | -280.3 | -6.1 | -761.9 | -29.83 |
Enlarge this image.Fig. 2 - Changes in forest land cover in the Barania Góra Range between 1848 and 2014. (1): Forest areas (dark green); (2): non-forest areas (light green).
Enlarge this image.Fig. 3 - Changes in forest land cover in the Racza Range between 1848 and 2014. (1): Forest areas (dark green); (2): non-forest areas (light green).
Throughout 1848-2014, the number of non-forest patches was higher than that of forest patches, with different trends through time in the two studied regions. In the Barania Góra Range, we observed an increase in the largest forest patches over the considered period, whereas in the Racza Range it decreased until 1933 and then started to increase.
Changes in the forest-field boundary
In both the Barania Góra Range and the Racza Range, the length of the forest-field boundary initially decreased (by 39.4 km and 45.4 km, respectively), and then increased (by 13.3 and 67.3 km) before decreasing again (by 15.4 and 68.2 km). The numbers of boundaries and patches reveal a similar tendency. In both study areas the forest-field boundary was observed to progressively decrease in elevation (Fig. 4). To illustrate the effect of the map scales on the results, data on the number of borders and their minimum lengths are given in Tab. 4. The main trends of changes in the length and numbers of forest boundaries and patches are shown in Tab. 5.
Enlarge this image.Fig. 4 - Dynamics of forest-field boundary occurrence in the Barania Góra Range (A) and Racza Range (B) between 1848 and 2014. The diagrams show the number of basic fields as follows: (1): vanished forest-field boundary (in blue); (2): continuing forest-field boundary (in green); (3): emerging forest-field boundary (in red); (4): no forest-field boundary (in grey).
Tab. 4 - Changes in the forest-field boundary between 1848 and 2014.
| Study area | Time section | Total Edge (TE, km) | Edge Density (ED, m ha-1) | Number of Edge (NE) | Minimal Edge (ME, m) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barania Góra Range | 1848 | 123.4 | 27 | 151 | 33 |
| 1879 | 96.1 | 21 | 96 | 228 | |
| 1933 | 95.8 | 21 | 83 | 125 | |
| 1960 | 84.0 | 19 | 113 | 79 | |
| 1979 | 97.3 | 22 | 164 | 34 | |
| 2014 | 81.9 | 18 | 123 | 48 | |
| Racza Range | 1848 | 156.7 | 34 | 106 | 45 |
| 1885 | 120.5 | 26 | 62 | 188 | |
| 1933 | 111.3 | 24 | 47 | 280 | |
| 1975 | 151.3 | 33 | 134 | 81 | |
| 1979 | 178.6 | 39 | 222 | 33 | |
| 2014 | 110.4 | 24 | 96 | 62 |
Tab. 5 - Trend of changes in boundary length and number of boundary and patches between 1848 and 2014. (+): increase; (-): decrease.
| Time interval | Barania Góra Range | Racza Range | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Boundary length | Boundary number | Patch number | Boundary length | Boundary number | Patch number | |
| 1848-1879 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| 1879-1933 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| 1933-1960 | - | + | + | + | + | + |
| 1960-1979 | + | + | + | + | + | + |
| 1979-2014 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Vegetation changes
The study area is situated within the foothills and the lower forest zone (lower subalpine zone) which is the optimum (climax) for Fagus sylvatica and Abies alba, the main species characterizing beech and fir-beech forests. The plant communities typical of these layers are: Alnetum incanae, Carici remotae-Fraxinetum, Dentario glandulosae-Fagetum, Luzulo nemorosae-Fagetum, Sorbo-Aceretum carpaticum, Abieti-Piceetum montanum and Plagiothecio-Piceetum tatricum.
The comparison of potential natural vegetation with current vegetation distribution revealed large changes in both species composition and the distribution of forest associations in the two study area (Fig. 5).
![View Image - Fig. 5 - Changes in forest associations. (A): maps of curent forest associations in the two study areas (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - [41]); (B): maps of potential natural vegetation (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - from [26]).](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/10/xWwpM?_a=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%3D%3D&_s=osuH8skpOL8ygtDsx9sD2CzdKIg%3D "View Image - Fig. 5 - Changes in forest associations. (A): maps of curent forest associations in the two study areas (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - [41]); (B): maps of potential natural vegetation (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - from [26]).")
Enlarge this image.Fig. 5 - Changes in forest associations. (A): maps of curent forest associations in the two study areas (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - [41]); (B): maps of potential natural vegetation (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range - from [26]).
Discussion
Map types and interpretation of results
The maps used in this study differ both in terms of scale (from 1:2.880 of the Austrian cadastral maps to 1:100.000 of the WIG military maps), their use (military or administrative purposes) and map projection. Therefore, results based on these maps need careful interpretation and verification using other data sources. Furthermore, the results could be affected by errors occurring at each stage of the creation of a digital map; particularly, georeferencing greatly affects the quality of results. Furthermore, the information value of map data is lower compared to direct source data, having a lower precision and accuracy. Being aware of the limitations of maps is the basis for drawing correct conclusions ([38]).
The main results of this study, obtained by applying the most appropriate methods of analysis of cartographic historical data, can be summarized as follows:
1. The dynamics of changes in land cover in two areas of the Beskid mountains were assessed by comparing the distribution and extension of different land cover types on maps from different time intervals. Although the results obtained should not be treated as absolute (see the above considerations), it was still possible to assess the trends related to changes in land cover in the study areas.
2. The course of the forest-field boundary was analyzed with great care, as its length and density are particularly dependent on the map scale. The geometric simple choropleth method was used for this purpose. Applying a definite size of the basic field in relation to some generalization of the map contents allows excessive precision to be avoided. The size of the basic field was determined by the geometric method.
3. The detection of changes in forest ecosystems based on cartographic materials was feasible only in terms of tracking changes in spatial distribution of forest/ non-forest areas. A detailed analysis of changes in forest ecosystems in terms of transformations of particular forest associations (their spatial distribution and composition in species) is only possible based on field research. The comparison of current distribution of particular forest associations with the potential vegetation has provided important hints for assessing the impact of cultural-historical factors on changes in forest ecosystems.
Changes in land use between 1848-2014
Forest landscapes in the Silesian- and Zywiec Beskids are located at higher elevations (forest belt) and include non-forest glades and pastures. On the other hand, agricultural landscapes are situated at lower elevations (foothill belt), and includes forest patches, like small enclaves next to water courses or on steeper slopes. Our results highlight that the forest belt increased in the period 1848-2014 at the expense of the foothill belt. As in other parts of the Carpathians, changes in the forest area were closely related to changes in the range of areas used for agricultural activities ([8], [29], [4]).
Our results on the length of the forest-field boundary should not be treated as actual absolute values. However, they can be useful to assess the importance of the various spatial processes involved in the transformation of the landscape ([10]). In general, we observed a decrease in length of the forest-field boundary through time, and a reduction in number of boundaries and patches. This could have been caused by the shrinkage of non-forest patches rather than their fragmentation. When fragmentation of patches becomes dominant over their shrinkage, the number and length of boundaries and the number of patches started to increase ([10]).
The trends in land use in the two studied areas were mainly determined by non-environmental factors. Land use in 1848 was the result of the so-called “land hunger”. Overpopulation and poor economic conditions forced to set arable lands at higher elevations and sloping hills, although most sites were unsuitable for crops. As a result, land use was far from sustainable in the mid-19th century and the pressure on the environment was high. At that time, the landscape was highly diversified, as occurring in other European countries ([2]).
Due to slightly different starting natural conditions, the land use structure was closer to the optimum in the Racza Range than in the Barania Góra Range, being the latter lesser managed than the former. This reflects the harsher geomorphological conformation of the Racza Range, which still represents a barrier for transports ([43]).
Starting from the late 19th century, intensified forest management and access limitations to forests contributed to a progressive reduction of the traditional meadow-pasture management. Furthermore, increased acquisition of land for residential building and crops caused a reduction in the area for pasture. Additionally, the outflow of people towards the growing industrial centers and high market competition for sheep products contributed to the abandonment of pasture management in the higher parts of the mountains ([12], [22]). As a consequence, clearings and pastures were overgrown with forest and their size decreased. Nevertheless, grazing continued in some clearings and pastures until the 1990s. The gradual disappearance of seasonal shepherding resulted in secondary succession of forest to take place onto unused pastures and clearings; some of these are now completely forested (Fig. 6a).
Enlarge this image.Fig. 6 - (a) Secondary succession of forest onto unused pastures; (b) Sheep grazing as a nature conservation measure; (c) Clearcutting as a result of forest degradation.
Conclusions
This study identified the following effects of land use and landscape changes in the past 200 years:
* The forested area in the Racza and Barania Góra Ranges grew systematically between 1848-2014 at the expense of non-forest areas, where farming was abandoned. The number of non-forest patches was higher than that of forest patches. Changes in the forest areas in this part of the Carpathians have continued since the early 20th century.
* The area of clearings and pastures decreased significantly because of intensified forest management, the use of land for residential buildings and crops, and the natural recolonization by forest tree species. All these factors contributed to the gradual decline of traditional meadow-pasture management.
* Changes in the forest/non-forest cover over time were accompanied by a decrease/increase in the length of the forest-field boundary and its lowering relative to altitude. The attrition of the boundary progressed from the highest levels of the mountains to areas close to permanent rural buildings.
* Analysis of cartographic resources and historical scientific papers, along with field verification, enabled a full interpretation of changes in land use in the chosen time interval. The study of historical maps combined with contemporary field data has potential for monitoring further landscape dynamics.
The approach applied in this study could be easily extended to other Carpathian regions subject to analogous historical-cultural influences (similar type of settlement, model of land use, policy regarding agriculture and environment, etc.). Moreover, the results obtained allow the comparison with other regions in Europe subject to a similar impact of natural processes, but a different impact of historical and cultural processes.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.
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