1. Introduction
Farm animals, particularly cattle, are of major economic importance in many parts of the world [1]. Beef cattle breeds are being developed genetically to maximize the efficiency of meat production [2] using breeding programs based on traits related to meat yield [3]. Recently, beef breeders have been inclined toward the augmentation of lean muscle mass growth to meet rapidly changing consumer demand for lean meat [4]. Thus, in the past several years, researchers have made more efforts to increase our understanding of genetic influences on economically important traits covering different aspects of meat production, especially muscle growth and development.
Simmental beef cattle, distributed in nearly all parts of the world, are bred primarily due to their high levels of growth and lean meat production under an appropriate diet [5,6,7]. Many studies have been conducted to examine the economically crucial traits of this breed, such as meat production [8], meat quality [9], carcass characteristics [10], and growth [11]. An understanding of the effects of genetic variation on meat quality, meat yield, and carcass quality will aid breeders’ implementation of methods to effectively address beef market demands.
The search for candidate genes via genetic association studies, conducted for almost all species [12], may be practical for the extension of our understanding of genes affecting economically important traits. Candidate genes may affect particular biological actions related to different aspects of a trait of interest, and their identification is an important step in efforts to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that regulate the genetic variation of traits of interest [13].
The performance of genome-wide association studies (GWASs) using high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panels is a robust approach to the identification of different parts of the genome and genetic variants that can elucidate variation in complex diseases and prominent or economically important traits in farm animals [14,15,16] and humans [17,18,19]. GWAS results can be sensitive to different factors, such as the sample size and the number of genes affecting traits of interest [20]. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) can be employed to access numerous genetic variants in close proximity to genes affecting traits of interest. Sharma et al. [21] used NGS to identify 18 mutations associated with Mendelian diseases in Hanwoo cattle; in addition, in the same cattle, 33 genes were found to be associated with domestication [22]. In Simmental beef cattle, NGS has been used to identify important genes that control hind leg width, such as PLXNA4, ASB15, SLC13A1, NDUFA5, IQUB, LMOD2, and WASL [23], and a promising candidate gene that controls net meat weight (MTPN) [24]. However, due to the high SNP density in NGS data, the calculation of marker effects is challenging [23,24,25].
Hindquarters from beef carcasses include valuable cuts, and their properties are thus important components of meat-related traits [23]. The hindquarter consists of connective tissues; the femur, tibia, and fibula; muscles including the semitendinosus, vastus lateralis, tensor fascia lata, gluteus medius, gastrocnemius, semimembranosus, and biceps femoris. Most of these muscles are skeletal and supply large amounts of meat. Muscle quantity has been reported to be closely related to the hind leg dimension [26]. In addition, the hind-leg muscle thickness correlated positively with the growth rate of European beef cattle [26].
In the past several years, genetic selection for carcass conformation traits has been practiced in most beef cattle populations. Carcass depth is an important carcass conformation trait that covers the principal muscle and bone tissues and thus is profitable in the beef industry. Han et al. [27] illustrated that it was associated with the IGF2 gene, a key gene for muscle development and growth in farm animals [28]. However, the literature on carcass depth is limited, and more research is needed.
In this GWAS, we detected SNPs for the identification of candidate genes (via QTLs and markers) associated with hind leg circumference and carcass depth in Simmental beef cattle. Our results can contribute to the clarification of the molecular mechanisms underlying hind-leg meat yield and carcass depth.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Ethics Statement
All procedures were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of China’s Council on Animal Care, and the study protocol was approved by the Institute of Animal Science of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China (approval number: RNL09/07). Analyses associated with animals adhered to the rules of China’s Council on Animal Welfare.
2.2. Animal Resources and Phenotype Data
The Simmental beef cattle population examined in this study comprised 1346 cattle born between 2009 and 2015 in Ulgai, Xilingol League, Inner Mongolia, China. Following weaning, the cattle were transferred to the Jinweifuren Farm feedlot in Beijing. All calves were raised under standard conditions and fed a total mixed ration based on the nutritional requirements of beef cattle (NRC, 2018). At 16–18 months of age, the animals were slaughtered. Immediately after bloodletting, the target carcasses were refrigerated at 4°C until trait measurement (about 9 h after slaughter). The carcasses were hanged, and the carcass depth and hind leg circumference were measured in centimeters using a tape (Figure 1). Trait means, standard deviations, and ranges are shown in Table 1.
2.3. Genotype Examination and Quality Control
Illumina Bovine HD SNP Beadchip (770 k) and genotype examinations were performed using Illumina Genome Studio (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). For quality control, individuals with high Pi-Hat values (representing sample duplication) were excluded, and animals and SNPs were excluded if the SNP call rate <90%, minor allele frequency (MAF) <5%, deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium detected (p < 10−6), or >10% genotype data missing. These criteria were assessed using PLINK software (ver. 1.07) [29]. After the exclusion of 94 cattle, 671,204 autosomal SNPs from 1252 cattle were analyzed.
2.4. Resequencing
Using genomic relationship data and Pi-Hat values, we chose 44 unrelated cattle for resequencing. The TIANamp Blood DNA kit (Tiangen Biotech Company Limited, Beijing, China) was used to extract genomic DNA. DNA concentrations and purity were quantified using the NanoPhotometer N50 device (Implen GmbH, Munich, Germany). DNA (1.5 μg) with an A260/280-nm absorbance ratio of 1.8–2 and A260/230-nm absorbance ratio of 2.0–2.2 was splintered using the Ultrasonicator S2 (Covaris, Woburn, MA, USA). Sequencing libraries were prepared using the Truseq Nano DNA HT sample preparation kit (Illumina Inc.) according to the manufacturer’s instructions of manufacturers. Each sample was given an index code for sequence recognition. The DNA samples were splintered into ≤350–base pair fragments by sonication, and DNA fragments were chosen for end polishing, addition of A-tailing, and sequencing with further PCR amplification using a full-length adapter. Sequencing libraries were prepared using the Illumina HiSeq 2500 system (Illumina Inc.). We obtained 9,621,765,847 reads and subjected them to quality control; low-quality reads with >10% unrecognized bases, >10% mismatches, or >50% poor-quality bases were removed. To facilitate down-stream analysis, SAM files were converted to BAM files. Then, we performed variant calling using samtools-0.1.19 mpileup [30]. Variants were excluded if an overall quality (QUAL) score of <20, a mapping quality (MQ) score of <30, and a read depth of <10. Moreover, we used the following proximity filters: if a variant was within 3 bp of another variant, the variant with the lower QUAL score was also excluded. Only bi-allele SNPs were retained for subsequent analyses. The average sequencing depth (representing the number of sequences for each base) of the samples was about 20×.
2.5. Variant Imputation
NSG-derived variants with MAFs > 0.05 (21,043,398 sequence variants from 44 animals) were subjected to imputation using BEAGLE (ver. 4.1) [31] with the default settings, based on algorithms determined by population data to infer genotypes for animals with missing information and haplotypes. We labeled genotypes for imputed sequence variants as 0 (homozygotes), 1 (heterozygotes), and 2 (alternative homozygotes). In total, 12,468,401 SNPs were obtained for chromosomes 1–29 from the RNA sequencing data with the use of the standard of imputation quality >0.1 [32].
2.6. Statistical Analysis
We employed a general mixed linear model based on the formula where y is a vector phenotypic value and μ represents the population mean. We applied two fixed-effect variables for single marker regression; b reflects noise associated with fixed effects (weight, sex, fattening days, and birth year) and bj reflects SNP effects. mj is the vector for the ith marker and u reflects the polygenic effect assumed with N (0, σ2K), where K corresponds to the kinship matrix and σ2 is the additive genetic variance. Although all SNPs on autosomal chromosomes were qualified for inclusion in the analysis, SNPs on chromosomes with mj were excluded. X and Z are the incidence matrices connecting the phenotypic values to fixed and polygenic effects, respectively. e represents random residual effects assumed with, where I is an identity matrix and is the residual variance.
Associated SNPs were identified using GenABEL (ver. 1.8-0) [33] in R, with the application of the significance criterion of Bonferroni-corrected p < 0.05 in accordance with division by the number of SNPs. For carcass depth, dependable QTLs and putative candidate genes were identified with a stringent significance threshold of 7.45 × 10−8. To obtain p values for the SNPs, t values were calculated. Considering the fact that Bonferroni correction outcomes are too stringent with low statistical power [34], we determined the threshold values for GWAS by adopting false discovery rate (FDR). The FDR was defined as 0.01, and the threshold p value was computed based on the formula , where n is the number of p < 0.01, and m represents the total number of SNPs [35].
To detect candidate genes of interest, we used the UCSC genome browser (
NGS dataset analysis is complex due to the enormous number of markers, which can make conventional p-value computation for SNPs difficult [23,24]. We coped with this problem by dividing chromosomes into the following segments: segment 1 consisted of chromosomes 1–10 with 5,830,727 SNPs, segment 2 consisted of chromosomes 11–20 with 4,063,690 SNPs, and segment 3 consisted of chromosomes 21–29 with 2,573,984 SNPs. Dependable QTLs and putative candidate genes were detected using the significance thresholds of p = 8.58 × 10−9 for segment 1, p = 1.24 × 10−7 for segment 2, and p = 1.95 × 10−7 for segment 3, based on the number of markers in each segment.
2.7. Heritability Estimation
The heritabilities for carcass depth and hind leg circumference were estimated using GCTA v1.93.1 software in accordance with Bovine HD SNP array and imputed NGS. The genomic heritability of each trait was calculated using .
3. Results
3.1. SNPs Associated with Carcass Depth
The estimated heritability for carcass depth was high (0.41 ± 0.06). With beadchip analysis, we identified several SNPs associated significantly with carcass depth (Table 2), including BovineHD0200025561 (p = 1.49 × 10−14) in candidate gene CLK1 on chromosome 2 and BovineHD0200025553 (p = 3.4 × 10−13) and BovineHD0200025550 (p = 8.3 × 10−13) in candidate gene BZW1. Exploration of the region that is about 10 kb upstream of the marker BovineHD0200025562 (p = 1.49 × 10−14) led to the identification of candidate gene PPIL3. The marker BovineHD0500023139 (p = 2.17 × 10−8) was found in the gene CCDC91 on chromosome 5. In addition, the candidate genes DIP2B and LARP4 were identified about 3 kb upstream and 24 kb downstream of the marker BovineHD0500008673 (p = 1.3 × 10−13), respectively. On chromosome 17, the gene c17h22orf31 was identified about 14 kb downstream of the SNP BovineHD1700020542 (p = 3.47 × 10−8). We also identified two significantly associated SNPs on chromosomes 10 (BovineHD1000031388; p = 1.17 × 10−8) and 26 (BovineHD2600013096; p = 5.58 × 10−8), but no associated candidate gene. Figure 2 shows the Manhattan plot for putative QTLs related to carcass depth.
3.2. SNPS Associated with Hind Leg Circumference
The estimated heritability for hind leg circumference was high (0.52 ± 0.12). Of the 9,621,765,847 raw reads acquired, 9,584,920,309 reads were examined after the application of quality control measures. In segment 1, we identified one SNP (rs91327124; p = 1.23 × 10−9) in BTA5 related to hind leg circumference, but no candidate gene in the vicinity of this SNP. In segment 2, several associated SNPs were identified (Table 3). The candidate gene ZBTB16 was identified about 50 kb downstream of the most strongly associated SNP in this segment (rs25168454; p = 1.31 × 10−10), NXPE4 was identified about 4.7 kb downstream of the SNP rs25439719 (p = 4.14 × 10−8), and the candidate gene RBM7 was found about 20 kb upstream of the SNP rs25237349 (p = 1.12 × 10−7).
In segment 3, we found many putative QTLs on chromosomes 23, 26, and 29 (Table 4). Exploration around flanking SNPs in BTA26 and BTA29 revealed no related candidate genes. The only associated SNP in BTA23 (rs37207517; p = 8.61 × 10−8) was located in the gene CDKAL1, which might be a crucial gene for Simmental beef cattle. About 47 kb upstream of this gene, the candidate gene E2F3 was identified. Figure 3 shows the Manhattan plots for putative QTLs in segments 1–3 related to hind leg circumference.
4. Discussion
GWASs have been conducted for many animals (e.g., [36]) and plant (e.g., [37]) species, contributing to a better understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying economically important traits in farm animals, including beef and dairy cattle [15,23,24,38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. GWASs are a powerful approach to the detection of genome regions that carry causative genes [45,46,47]. We anticipate that NGS technology will aid scientists’ detection of currently unknown genetic variants [48]. In this study, NGS analysis yielded no results related to carcass depth, but the use of an SNP array did yield such results; the opposite was true for hind leg circumference.
Beadchip analysis revealed that the CLK1 gene harbors the SNP BovineHD0200025561 in BTA2, associated most strongly with carcass depth. This gene codes for a protein kinase with binary specificity that phosphorylates tyrosine and serine/threonine residues [49]. Its N-terminal includes a regulatory portion containing receptors for EGF and other growth elements [50]. EGF plays a key role in cellular development by promoting cell proliferation and differentiation. CLK1 has been reported to play a role in cancer due to the associations among CLK1, ASF/SF2, and SRp20 [49] and in muscular dystrophy [51]. The CLK1 inhibitor, TG693, is a splicing modulator with therapeutic potential for patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy [51]. In pigs, high expression levels of the full-length splice form of CLK1 were observed in the kidney, small intestine, and longissimus dorsi tissues [52]. In a rat model, CLK gene expression showed downregulation related to muscle fat during lactation [51]. In a gene ontology analysis, Lee et al. [53] detected a negative association between CLK1 and the intermuscular fat content in Hanwoo cattle. In another study of Hanwoo cattle, CLK1 was associated significantly with marbling (i.e., intramuscular fat) [54]. However, information on the effects of CLK1 on meat quality and its relationship to cellular (especially muscle and bone) development in Simmental beef cattle is lacking. We hypothesize that CLK1 plays a role related to meat quality and likely muscle cell development in Simmental beef cattle, but more research is needed to validate the relationship of this candidate gene to these traits.
In BTA2, we identified the candidate gene BZW1, which harbors two SNPs associated significantly with carcass depth (BovineHD0200025553 and BovineHD0200025550). This gene has been reported to be a proliferation regulator that promotes the progression of many aggressive cancers, such as salivary mucoepidermoid carcinoma [55]. BZW1 plays an important role in cell cycle processes and transcriptionally manages the histone H4 gene in the G1/S phase. Chiou et al. [56] reported that its downregulation can repress lung adenocarcinoma metastasis. The roles of BZW1 in tumor growth [57] and Alzheimer’s disease progression [58] have also been well demonstrated. However, very few studies have examined the function of this gene in farm animals. BZW1 has been associated with bovine endometriosis [59], and Hoelker et al. [59] showed that its downregulation could influence the dynamic progression of embryos from cattle with subclinical endometritis. We hypothesize that BZW1 is associated with carcass depth in Simmental beef cattle. More research is warranted to validate this association. We also identified the gene PPIL3 about 10 kb upstream of the SNP BovineHD0200025562. PPIL3 has been associated with estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer [60], but information on its function in farm animals is lacking. Thus, our identification of the potential association of PPIL3 with carcass depth in Simmental cattle is novel. Further research is needed to corroborate this association.
In BTA5, we identified the candidate gene CCDC91, which harbors the SNP BovineHD0500023139, associated significantly with carcass depth. This gene is expressed in numerous cancer cell lines. CCDC91 has been identified as a candidate gene associated with production traits (fat percentage) in dairy cattle [61], but few studies have examined this gene in farm animals. We hypothesize that this gene is associated with carcass depth in Simmental beef cattle. Moreover, we identified the candidate gene DIP2B about 3 kb downstream of the SNP BovineHD0500008673. In cattle, this gene has been associated with fatty acid content [62], an important trait affecting meat quality. DIP2B has also been associated with lipid metabolism, skeletal system development, and insulin signaling [62]. Information on its associations with traits in Simmental beef cattle is lacking; we hypothesize that it is related to carcass depth. We also identified the candidate gene LARP4 about 24 kb upstream of the SNP BovineHD0500008673. This gene may be able to suppress cancer cell migration and invasion [63]. Egiz et al. [64] reported that LARP4 repressed the motility and metastatic development of ovarian cancer cells. This gene has also been shown to control mRNA solidity and translation [65]. Zhou et al. [66] identified several candidate genes, including LARP4B, that influence milk protein composition traits in Holstein cattle. We hypothesize that LARP4 is associated with carcass depth in Simmental beef cattle.
In the NGS analysis, we found that the SNP rs25168454 in BTA15 was associated most strongly with hind leg circumference. The candidate gene ZBTB16 was located about 50 kb downstream of this SNP in segment 2. This conserved gene, broadly expressed in normal tissues such as cardiac and skeletal muscle [67,68] and also recognized as PLZF and Zfp145, acts as a crucial transcriptional suppressor or activator [69] that is required for various biological and developmental processes, including cellular apoptosis [70], hind limb construction [71], spermatogenesis [72], and anti-tumorigenesis activities [73]. It is also involved in processes such as metabolism regulation [74] and mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation [75], which is important during bone regeneration. In addition, ZBTB16 controls homeostasis and the fate of hematopoietic stem cells [76]. Epigenomics and transcriptomics research has revealed its role in adipogenesis, as it controls fat accumulation [77,78], and it has been found to control thermogenics in brown fat and muscle [79]. Wei et al. [80] reported that the overexpression of ZBTB16 enhances white adipogenesis and brown-like adipocyte formation in intramuscular preadipocytes in cattle. The bovine hind leg contains important muscles and bones, and its circumference is a good criterion for the assessment of traits related to bone and muscle development. Thus, we hypothesize that ZBTB16 plays a role in bone and muscle development in Simmental beef cattle, but more research is needed to validate this hypothesis. In BTA15, about 4.7 kb downstream of SNP rs25439719, we found the candidate gene NXPE4. This gene has been recognized as a potentially promising prognostic biomarker for colorectal cancer [81]. Sarghale et al. [82] reported that NXPE4 was a candidate gene located near SNPs related most closely to methane emission and fat traits in Holstein cattle. The candidate gene RBM7 was also identified in BTA15, almost 20 kb upstream of the SNP rs25237349. The literature contains little information about this gene. A GWAS revealed that it was a candidate gene associated with milk production in Iranian buffalo [83]. We hypothesize that NXPE4 and RBM7 are associated with hind leg circumference in Simmental beef cattle.
In segment 3, we identified the very promising candidate gene CDKAL1, which harbors the only SNP associated with hind leg circumference in BTA23 (rs37207517). Several GWASs have revealed the role of CDKAL1 in type 2 diabetes [84,85,86]. In addition, CDKAL1 encodes the CDK5 regulatory subunit–associated protein 1-like 1. This protein results from the translation of CDKAL1 and is homologous to cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulatory subunit–associated protein, a neuronal protein that can hamper CDK5 activation [87]. CDK5 can act as a myogenic protein kinase; it is required for myoblast differentiation and thus plays a key role in muscle myogenesis [88]. CDKAL1 has also been associated with mitochondrial morphology and adipogenesis [89]. Thus, we hypothesize that it is associated with muscle development and hind leg circumference in Simmental beef cattle. We identified E2F3, another important candidate gene, about 47 kb upstream of CDKAL1. As a promoter of the muscle cell cycle, E2F is related to myogenesis [88]. Importantly, E2F3 can induce myogenic differentiation [90]. Ma et al. [91] reported that microRNA-432 could hamper myogenesis by targeting E2F3 in muscle cells. E2F3 is associated with various other processes and plays an important role in the progression of a variety of cancers, such as bladder, breast, and prostate cancers [92,93,94]. Information about E2F3 in Simmental beef cattle is lacking; we hypothesize that this gene is related to myogenesis in this breed.
5. Conclusions
Using the Illumina Bovine HD Beadchip and NGS dataset analyses, we identified many putative QTLs on several chromosomes that were associated with carcass traits in 1252 Simmental beef cattle. Several candidate genes related to carcass depth and hind leg circumference were identified. Among them, CDKAL1 and E2F3 may be associated with myogenesis and muscle development. Although the data were obtained by analyzing the genome of the Simmental breed, they can also be extended and validated in other cattle breeds. The identification of such genes helps breeders to understand and improve traits such as carcass depth and hind leg circumference.
Statistical analyses, writing—original draft preparation and Writing—review and editing, F.B.; validation and supervision, J.L.; conceptualization and project administration, M.M.; conceptualization and writing—review and editing, L.X. and L.Z.; validation and writing—review and editing, J.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This study was supported by the Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (ASTIP-IAS03 and CAAS-ZDRW202102), China Agriculture Research System of MOF and MARA and the National Beef Cattle Industrial Technology System (CARS-37). The project was also partly supported by the Science and Technology Project of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2020GG0210 and KJXM2020002-01) for the data analysis and interpretation of the study.
All procedures were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of China’s Council on Animal Care, and the study protocol was approved by the Institute of An-imal Science of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, China (approval number: RNL09/07). Analyses associated with animals adhered to the rules of China’s Council on Animal Welfare.
Not applicable.
The data underlying this study have been uploaded to Dryad. The raw genotype data are accessible using the following doi: 10.5061/dryad.4qc06.
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
EGF: epidermal growth factor; GWAS: genome-wide association study; MAF: minor allele frequency; NGS: next-generation sequencing; QTL: quantitative trait locus; SNP: single-nucleotide polymorphism; MSC: mesenchymal stem cells.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Manhattan plot of −log10 (p) for carcass depth. The horizontal line represents the threshold.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Manhattan plots of −log10 (p) for hind leg circumference in segments 1–3. The horizontal lines represent the thresholds.
Mean carcass depth and hind leg circumference.
| Trait | Mean (cm) | Standard Deviation (cm) | Maximum (cm) | Minimum (cm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carcass depth |
63.88 |
4.62 |
82 |
13 |
SNPs associated with carcass depth, determined by GWAS analysis.
| SNP | Chromosome | Position | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| BovineHD0200025561 |
2 |
89923045 |
1.49 × 10−14 |
SNPs in segment 2 associated with hind leg circumference, as determined by NGS dataset analysis.
| SNP | Chromosome | Position | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| rs84436800 |
12 |
84436800 |
2.17 × 10−8 |
SNPs in segment 3 associated with hind leg circumference, as determined by NGS dataset analysis.
| SNP | Chromosome | Position | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| rs37207517 |
23 |
37207517 |
8.61 × 10−8 |
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; Mohammadabadi, Mohammadreza 2
; Jensen, Just 3
; Xu, Lingyang 4 ; Li, Junya 4 ; Zhang, Lupei 4
1 Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China;
2 Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman 77951, Iran;
3 Center for Quantitative Genetics and Genomics, Aarhus University, 8210 Aarhus, Denmark;
4 Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China;