1. Introduction
Tourism in special protected areas (SPA) is a dynamic field of research seeking a balance between economic, environmental, and sociocultural impacts. Since the first protected area declaration in 1864, protected areas for recreation and tourism globally have become a significant issue regarding the protection/usage dilemma. One-sixth of the global terrestrial surface was recently announced as protected areas [1]. Besides, 93% of natural heritage sites provide tourism and recreation activities [2]. Therefore, tourism management becomes more significant considering the protected areas’ size, composition, and variety of management categories. Accordingly, conservation and sustainable use balance is context-dependent [3,4].
Research on the development and effects of tourism in protected areas started in the 1970s. It has become a popular academic topic since the 1990s. In the Barcelona Convention for Protected Areas in Europe [5], provisions were addressed for managing coastal areas for the first time, including the first regulations regarding the effects of tourism on the UN Mediterranean Action Plan in 1980. Furthermore, the association of Protected areas with sustainable tourism has been with the UN IZM Convention in 2008 [6]. In this sense, we see that academic studies and international policies co-existed. The current study is an example of the synthesis of international policies and academic studies. In 2019, WWF Turkey started a project aiming to generate a management plan for Datça -Bozburun. The authors of this study dealt with the tourism development part of the project. The study area was announced in 1990 with neither a macro-level management plan nor tourism management.
Whether from economist or ecologist perspectives, the effects of tourism development hit the managerial agenda for various stakeholders, including local governments, non-governmental organizations, entrepreneurs, and local people. Therefore, sustainable tourism management in protected areas depends on the stakeholders’ involvement and support of local people in the particular area. In addition, sustainability in tourism highly relies on the residents and their involvement in decision-making processes and labor [7,8,9,10,11]. Hence, this study depicts a holistic perspective on the perceptions of stakeholders, the tourism capacities, and the challenges of sustainable tourism management in special protected environmental areas.
As announced as a specially protected area in Turkey in 1990, the Datça-Bozburun peninsula, one of the most extensive SPAs in Europe (most significant in the Mediterranean basin), triggers a key biodiversity area corresponding to seven different taxon groups and hosts several globally endangered terrestrial species. Besides, it comprises 536 species of fauna and flora. However, the Datça-Bozburun peninsula faces environmental challenges from increasing development pressures due to seasonal tourism and residential developments [12,13]. In addition, the Datça-Bozburun peninsula’s economy relies on the service sector, and tourism contributes to several sectors, including trade, transportation, construction, and small-scale industry.
Tourism in Datça-Bozburun SEPA started in the 1970s in parallel with tourism development in Turkey and has developed since the 1990s. The first hotel in Datça was built in the 1930s, and the bed capacity was recorded as 180 in 1975. In tourism development, secondary residences began with cooperatives in the 1970s, parallel to the hotels. On the other hand, the foundation of today’s secondary houses was laid with the first building cooperative established in 1973, and the number of cooperatives exceeded 10 in the 1990s. Another indicator of tourism development has been the blue flag beaches, and Datça beaches received their first blue flag in 2000 [14] (p. 5).
The previous research on the peninsula notes that the value of tourism of US$18 million per year [15]. However, although the economic benefits of tourism are significant, the pitfalls, including illegal housing (90%), insufficient infrastructure and waste management services, and uncontrolled migration, generate pressure on the environment and social life.
Therefore, deriving from the tourism development literature, we attempt to address the questions below:
What is the process of tourism development in Datça-Bozburun SEPA?
How are tourism’s development and current situation perceived in Datça-Bozburun SEPA?
What are tourism perception’s economic, environmental, social, and cultural effects in Datça-Bozburun SEPA?
How do economic, environmental, social, and cultural dimensions affect local people’s support for tourism?
In this study, exemplifying Datça-Bozburun Peninsula, we reveal the unique aspects of tourism development and stakeholders’ support for tourism in special environmental protection areas. The case not only showcases the broad implications of the special area but also provides significant insights into the relevance of tourism development to general tourism development. Besides, as suggested, it demonstrates the key stakeholders’ and residents’ perceptions to expand the literature [16]. Accordingly, we adopted mixed-method research to amalgamate different perspectives as indicated in the relevant literature [17,18]. While the qualitative method enables the comprehension of the historical and cultural roots and managerial practices, the quantitative method presents the current perceptions from a larger sample. The authors believe this empirical research has broadened prior knowledge of tourism development and its impacts on the SPAS. Additionally, it provides policies and recommendations for growth based on coordination and core competencies of the destination in overcoming management challenges in special environmental protected areas.
2. Literature
2.1. The Perceived Tourism Impacts
The prominent perspective toward sustainability is the perspective that gained acceptance by the stakeholders. Conversely, the economist perspectives dismiss the ecological consequences of tourism development. On the other hand, the pure conservation-oriented view overlooks the issue’s plurality (social, economic, and environmental) [19] (p. 1709). Regardless of these perspectives, the unique destination attributes come to the fore and gain importance in measuring the effects of tourism. These include the degree of isolation, peripherality, and vulnerability of the physical environment. In addition, the uniqueness of the culture, pressure for change, geographical features, demography, population density, and political status [20] (p. 75). Combining all these elements, from economist or ecologist perspectives, the effects of tourism development hit the managerial agenda for various stakeholders, including local governments, non-governmental organizations, entrepreneurs, and local people.
The previous research suggests that the three main factors involved in tourism development are economic, sociocultural, and environmental effects [21,22]. This view is also in line with the triple-bottom approach to impacts commonly used in the sustainable tourism development literature [23]. The main focus of analysis in The Triple Bottom Line is businesses’ economic, environmental, and social sustainability [24,25,26]. The concept has since become widely used in tourism destinations’ sustainable development and management [27,28]. Moreover, it has been one of the critical concepts in preventing economic, environmental, and social costs, especially in conservation planning and resource management, by considering the social and ecological benefits [29]. In the same vein, in this study, we examined the perceptions of key stakeholders and residents toward tourism development. Given the importance of the degree of support, the impacts of tourism in SPAs are handled with economic, socio-cultural, and environmental dimensions. Current research at SPAs shows that the more cheerful the residents perceive the various impacts of tourism, the more likely they are to support tourism development. Alternatively, residents are less likely to support further development if tourism is perceived to have fewer positive impacts (i.e., harming the economic, sociocultural, and environmental condition of the community) [30].
2.2. Residents’ Support
Based on the Social Exchange Theory (SET), recent studies have confirmed the importance of SPAs residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts in influencing their support for tourism development [31,32]. Sustainable tourism management in protected areas depends on the stakeholders’ involvement and the support of local people. While the positive attitudes and perceptions pave the way to involve tourism, particularly associated with guest interactions, the negative ones will prevent the support for tourism [7,8]. Hence, the help of the residents plays a chief role in sustainable tourism development. Scholars generally refer to social exchange theory to ascertain the exchange among actors in different contexts [33]. Tourism researchers also utilize the approach to explain residents’ perceptions of particular tourism development. According to the theory, the degree of support depends on the perception of comparison between benefits (positive impacts) and costs (adverse effects) [9,10]. Therefore, they generally indicate a negative relationship between perceived costs and support for tourism development and a positive relationship between perceived benefits and support [8]. SDT suggests that understanding the perception of residents and the key stakeholders’ perceptions enables tourism leaders and the community to maximize the positive impacts of tourism and reduce the adverse effects. Besides, it supports tourism development and support for local governments [16,34]. In the same vein, this current study attempts to depict a holistic perspective on the perceptions of stakeholders, the tourism capacities, and the challenges of sustainable tourism management in Special Protected Environmental Areas (SEPA). The social exchange depends on stakeholders’ perceptions of a particular destination’s economic, sociocultural, and ecological costs and benefits.
Although the adverse effects of economic activities on the natural environment have been increasingly discussed since the 1960s, the negative environmental effects of tourism as an economic activity were not taken into account at first. Then the current trend is to find a balance regarding the triple bottom line. Similarly, tourism in protected areas is economically attractive; it is not accepted often because it erodes the original values.
A destination sees tourism as economic leverage; characterized by living standards and employment prospects. Thus, the destination aims to eliminate economic dependency on a limited range of export products. For these reasons, internal and external pressures for tourism development in the destination begin to affect local people [35]. Accordingly, previous literature shows that residents have high expectations for tourism development at the first stage and tend to accept tourists. In the following period, it was determined that the support for the process that came to the threshold point decreased, and their attitudes changed negatively [36]. For example, Holland et al. [37] (p. 14) concluded that individuals whose livelihoods are directly related to tourism are more likely to support conservation policies than those unrelated to tourism. In addition, to participation and support in tourism activities, the importance of the volume of economic investments in the region is emphasized [38] (pp. 1017–1019). One of the most frequently referenced variables in the literature regarding the effects of tourism is economic effects. Tourism movements and activities in a destination can have positive and negative effects. Tourism can contribute to economic growth and improve living standards by increasing employment opportunities, foreign exchange supply, and trade volume, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries [39,40,41]. However, on the other hand, it increases the cost of living by increasing inflation [42,43,44].
There is a positive relationship between tourism’s perceived economic impacts and the support the residents give to tourism development.
As an “environmentally friendly” activity, the mainstream analogy of tourism has been the “smokeless industry” in the Anglo-Saxon literature [45]. Since the natural environment is an integral part of the tourism product, tourism development in any destination inevitably causes a change in nature. Today, the effects of tourism activities on the natural environment have become the primary concern of researchers and destination management.
Tourism activities, unplanned and uncontrolled structures, urbanization, and inadequate infrastructure harm nature and wildlife and cause air and water pollution [46] (p. 83). The environmental impacts of tourism in SPAs are complex and environmentally specific as a result of the tourism activities carried out in the protected areas, the deterioration of the ecological balance, the endangerment of wildlife, the threat of endangered species [47] (p. 157), the destruction of vegetation, and the pollution of natural resources. Maldonado-Ore ve Custodio [39] (p. 12) proposes environmental measures such as protecting nature due to economic developments, tracking wildlife, and preventing ancestry problems. While the increase in tourism revenues contributes to the diversification of tourist attractions, the change in the environment due to the tourist flow causes crowds and pollution [48]. Tourism can be a threat or an ally for conservation in SPA, depending on its compatibility with conservation objectives, which can be determined by management planning [49]. For example, as a result of planned development, it has been determined that tourism activities such as bird photography are suitable for preserving biological diversity and achieving sustainable community development goals [50] (p. 9)
There is a positive relationship between the perceived environmental impacts of tourism and the support given by the residents to tourism development.
Similar to its economic and environmental effects, tourism development creates a positive and negative impact on the sociocultural environment of destinations; with the development of tourism, the uniqueness of culture, pressure for change, geographical features, demography, population density, and political status gain importance [20] (p. 75). In addition, with the development of tourism, agricultural areas and the physical environment are differentiated for visitors, traditional cultural changes are observed, and the character of the village or town in question is gradually disappearing [35] (p. 481). Tourism development can positively lead to improved community services to enhance local cultural identity and the whole population’s welfare [51] (p. 245) or the other way around. Similarly, Raftopoulos [52] (p. 13), among the effects of rural community-based tourism, determined that the people of the region people local ecological knowledge, the legends transferred from generation to generation disappeared, and the environmental production cycles of the local people changed.
There is a positive relationship between the perceived social impacts of tourism and the support given by the residents to tourism development.
There is a positive relationship between tourism’s perceived cultural effects and the support the residents give to tourism development.
Based on the above explanations and social exchange theory, it is assumed in the current study that when local people express more positive (or less positive) perceptions of the impacts associated with tourism development, they will more (or less) support it. Together with the study hypotheses, the proposed research model is presented in Figure 1. This model displays an integrative approach to the proposed relationships between the impacts of tourism (economic, environmental, social, and cultural impacts) and residents’ support.
3. Methodology
3.1. The Study Area
In 1958, the Ministry of Forestry introduced Turkey’s first National Park (NP), the country’s first protected territory. The types, numbers, and sizes of protected areas have grown. Excluding the SITs and sustainable use areas, there are currently more than 400 protected areas spread over twelve different protected area management categories, totaling more than 2,700,000 hectares [53] (p. 130,138). The Barcelona Convention was updated in 1995 to include coastal areas and the marine environment. The revised Convention was renamed “The Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Marine Environment and Coastal Region.” It went into effect on 9 June 2004. In 2002, a Decree of the Council of Ministers made Turkey a party to the amendment.
A further protocol of this convention, “Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas in the Mediterranean,” was updated and titled “Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean.” Within this framework, the particular areas were designated as Specially Protected Environment Areas, legally protected maritime areas. [54] (p. 83)
There are 18 sites in Turkey that have been announced as SPAs due to their unique qualities. On 22 October 1999, Datça-Bozburun SPA was established, a 1443.89 km2 terrestrial and marine area. The area is home to numerous marine and terrestrial endemic species [55] (p. 731). The Datça-Bozburun Specially Protected Area has a particularly dense canopy of flora. The Mediterranean vegetation is characterized by olive trees, Red pine groups, endemic Cretan date palms (Phoenix Theophrastus), almond trees, local thymes, oleander, bay laurel, and locusts. In total, 807 species of maritime flora and fauna, 1.047 taxa of plants, 167 species of terrestrial invertebrates, 110 species of fish, 4 species of amphibians, 27 species of reptiles, and 123 species of birds and mammals have all been identified in this region. On the peninsula, there are important archeological, civic, ecological, and historical resources that are the byproducts of past civilizations and exhibit social, economic, and architectural traits unique to that period.
These locations are therefore recognized as being special protected zones. All around the peninsula, they are dispersed. Numerous bays, yacht tourism, historical landmarks, uncommon vegetation, and an endangered wild goat are among the IUCN IV category features of the SPA (Capra aegagrus) [53]. As seen in the figure, the SPA is located within the borders of Muğla province. Mugla; is adjacent to Aydın, Denizli, Burdur, and Antalya. The tip of Muğla is a peninsula that connects the Mediterranean and the Aegean and has a very close location with the Greek islands.
As seen in Figure 2, Possessing an area of 1474 km2, Datça-Bozburun SPA is the largest of the 12 special environmental protection areas in Turkey and the Mediterranean basin. The region, the subject of the first marine biodiversity studies in Turkey, has a population of 26,324, according to the 2009 census [56,57].
3.2. Research Design
In this study, a mixed-method approach was followed to reveal the effects of tourism in the SEPA region and the tourism support of the local people. Integrating qualitative and quantitative research into a single study as a mixed method provides better insight into a phenomenon. In the mixed method, the researcher collects and analyses data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using qualitative and quantitative designs at some stage of the research process [55]. A mixed method provides a “fuller field of vision” for researchers since they approach the research from multiple perspectives [56].
The research process includes: (1) face-to-face interviews with representatives of public authorities, entrepreneurs, and non-governmental organizations and obtaining qualitative materials with researcher diaries and field notes to reveal tourism impacts and tourism support in SEPA; (2) identifying critical themes for tourism impacts and support for tourism through thematic descriptive analysis; (3) conducting a face-to-face survey with local people to obtain quantitative data to test research hypotheses; (4) to validate the research hypothesis with the structural equation model and draw relevant conclusions based on the results.
3.3. Qualitative Study
In qualitative research, the literature suggests several research designs following the purpose and paradigm of the researcher. In this study, we adopted a case study model. Although there are many approaches to systematically conducting case studies, this study adopts the holistic multi-case study model Yin [57] proposed to describe the development and effects of tourism in Datça-Bozburun SPA. In the case studies, researchers aim to reach a diverse and rich data set so that the research findings can be comprehensive and holistic. For this reason, we conducted a quantitative approach to support the qualitative data in the research.
The qualitative data was obtained from two field trips to Datça-Bozburun SPA notes, face-to-face interviews with stakeholders, researcher diaries, and data compiled from secondary sources. To develop the management plan for the marine area of Datça-Bozburun SPA with a participatory approach, we met with personnel representatives from official and voluntary organizations in the Muğla center, Marmaris, Bozburun Datça, and Selimiye between 8–11 September 2020 and 16–20 November 2020. We completed these interviews in the open air with a few participants, including bilateral meetings and interviews, considering the restrictions related to the COVID-19 outbreak. Besides the pre-determined vital stakeholders, the snowball sampling technique was utilized in the interviews. As a result, new people suggested by the primary stakeholders were reached, and the interviews ended after the data saturation. The decision for data saturation is made after the recurring themes and discourses. The number of authorities in the region was 28 and the number of interviewed participants was 28. We conducted interviews using the unstructured interview technique. In the interviews, we requested permission to record audio from the participants. Eighteen of the 28 participants, primarily civil servants, did not favor recording audio. All interviews were transcribed, analyzed, and conducted in the local language.
For this reason, 18 voice recordings were decoded in the study. In addition, three researchers took notes and compiled the notes during the interviews with the participants who did not permit the audio recording. We kept their names confidential while quoting directly from the participants’ statements, and pseudonyms comprising two letters (e.g., AB) were given. In qualitative research methods and approaches, trustworthiness is recommended compared with validity and reliability in quantitative research (Guba and Lincoln, 1982). Guba and Lincoln suggest four dimensions regarding the credibility of the study. These are credibility, reliability, transferability, and confirmability. Thematic analysis will be used in the analysis of research data. Considering the credibility strategies, the following steps were applied in the thematic analysis [58] (p. 4).
In the first phase, the researchers ensured their familiarity with the data. Triangulation was made using different data sources (three field trips, document analysis, interviews, and reflective diaries). In addition, theoretical and reflective thoughts, potential codes, and themes were recorded. In the second stage, in which the first codes were created, a coding framework was developed using expert opinions and peer reviews. All of this stage was recorded, and a basis was created for the repetition of the research. The third stage is the search for themes. At this stage, a triangulation was made by referring to other researchers. Conceptual and thematic hierarchies were determined by visualizing the concepts related to the themes. In the next step, the themes were reviewed together with other researchers. In the fifth stage, the themes are defined and named. In this stage, the researchers and experts agree on the themes. The last stage is the reporting stage.
3.4. Quantitative Analysis
The measurement scales of the variables in this study were adapted from Yoon et al. [7]. The economic, environmental, social, and cultural effects of tourism and the support of local people for tourism were measured with 18 items. The study items were measured utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (extremely disagree) to 5 (extremely agree). Since the original scale items were in English, they were first translated into Turkish to ensure translation equivalence. The items were then translated into English and then back into Turkish. In addition, two tourism academics were asked to evaluate whether the items were applicable and represented relevant dimensions. Secondly, a group of 15 students was asked to express their opinions on the clarity, necessity, and similarity of these items; we did not find any problems with expressions or measurements in these two steps. Next, the main study was carried out. Research data were collected through a face-to-face survey conducted between 14–27 October 2020 with local people, including local business owners, non-governmental organization members, public institution employees, and residents in Datça-Bozburun regions, and 322 questionnaires were collected to support the qualitative data. In all, 30% of the respondents are female, 70% are male, 39.4% with higher education, 38.4% have secondary education, and 20.6% have primary education Table 1. In the study, participants from almost all occupational groups were reached. Most participants are those working in tourism-related business lines, and entrepreneurs constitute the majority, with 35 people. The average duration of all participants living in the region is 19 years.
The partial least square structural equation model (PLS-SEM) was used to assess the measurement and structural model. To assess factor loadings and path coefficients, this research operationalized bootstrapping with 5000 iterations. To check univariate normality, we analyzed the values of skewness and kurtosis. The skewness values fell between −0.83 and 1.73, and kurtosis values fell between −0.32 and 1.76, showing that normality is not an issue in our study. In addition, we checked common method variance using full collinearity VIF [59]. Test results yielded the value of the interpretation coefficient of the first factor at 25.5%, which was lower than the benchmark of 50% for an acceptable range of common method variance. In addition, extreme VIF values for items ranged from 1.012 to 2.027, indicating that the common variance method is not an issue in our study [59].
The theoretical model was assessed using a two-stage process by testing a measurement model, followed by testing a structural model [60]. First, SmartPLS 3.3.1 software was used to estimate factor loadings and path coefficients through the bootstrapping technique (5000 resample).
4. Findings
4.1. Qualitative Findings
4.1.1. Tourism Development
Tourism activities in Datça-Bozburun SEPA started in the 1970s in parallel with tourism development in Turkey and have followed an upward trend since the 1990s. Upon being declared a Special Environmental Protection Area, the region, which has more than one protected area, moved under the authority and responsibility of the General Directorate of Conservation of Natural Assets, affiliated with the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization. The effects of this institutional change on tourism continue. In the interviews and field observations, we understand that some of the difficulties in coordination resulted from conflicts in authority, responsibility, competence, and cooperation. Being a Special Environmental Protection Area brings about two aspects: zoning and construction. Therefore, the context of being a SEPA becomes essential in all activities, ranging from using bays to constructing small hotels and hostels, fishing, and daily boat tours.
SB: Being in a special environmental protection area protects us. People inevitably own up to these regulations. They may not have been wholly accepted yet, but there is increasing awareness. This issue comes up frequently, and it relates to many areas, from construction to marine and environmental use to zoning permits. It seems like an obstacle in some places, but it is there for protection. There is something remarkable. Being a particular environmental protection area covers many issues, from endemic plant species and animals to agricultural land use, and the people are conscious of it.
Unique tourism planning is needed to develop tourism in a protected area. It is impossible to say that tourism-oriented activities are created by considering local dynamics. The effects of this vertically intersect with tourism’s economic, environmental, social, and cultural dimensions. For example, the lack of planning in Selimiye necessitated the use of some initiatives.
MB: Planning exists, of course; it should exist. That is what we had always suggested. We suggested that beaches, bars, and restaurants could be planned in a virgin place … For example, Sığ Liman (Sığ Port) would have been quite the place. These were discussed at the meetings, but now it is impossible because too many houses have been built there, and the property owners will object to the idea. But back then, there was no one. The Sığ Liman shore was lovely. The public authorities have already tried to build a large beach there. It is possible to create a beach where 1000–1500 people can swim. However, sand reinforcement is needed; the sand there has thinned. In the past, they used that beautiful fine sand to make plaster for building houses on the peninsula. There was no road, so what should the people do?
While creating a SEPA enables the protected areas to become tourist attractions, it also eliminates the reason for their existence with excessive and inappropriate use of nature. The fact that tourism is concentrated on the beaches for a short season, in other words, it lacks diversity, is related to the lack of promotion of recreational and tourist activities that will reduce the pressure on the coast. One of the striking issues discovered by the researchers during the field trips is the minimal public relations and publicity activities about the SEPA. In addition, promotional activities that can be used to diversify tourism are also found to be lacking by the research participants.
AB: The National Geographic magazine placed the Carian Trail among one of the six best adventure routes in the world in all its editions in Europe this year. It is going to be published in Russia as well. The most significant elements are that the routes are beautiful, the region is diverse, and there is the sea. People love the sea. The Datça Peninsula has a coastline of 150 km, where you can enjoy the sea continuously, on more than 50 beaches, unlike the Lycian Trail, which has less than 50 beaches. It is, therefore, an attractive place; both Datça Peninsula and Bozburun Peninsula have great potential. From the perspective of alternative tourism, both have potential with their villages, nature, trails, and the sea. There just needs to be more local businesses and local governments that support alternative tourism. So far, it has always been about individual efforts.
Having a Special Environmental Protection Area status has some advantages for tourism in Datça-Bozburun and disadvantages for local people. The first of these is the restriction on zoning because of the protection status.
ZK: Each square meter in Datça is part of a SEPA. This situation ties the hands of the landlords and the villagers. We cannot do any construction on our land. Our children cannot get married and own a house. They own every place and make the life of the villagers difficult. I want the site status of Datça to be removed.
Planning Issues and Infrastructure
“Lack of planning,” which should be emphasized in the development of tourism in the region, should be considered together with the above premises. An increase in touristic activities, the result of transportation, accommodation, and catering capacity, and the increase in recreational activities continue in a state of “spontaneity.” This situation needs to be reviewed within the economism-ecology dichotomy. Over-capacity development in certain areas causes ecosystem changes that cannot be reversed, making environmental sustainability within the project’s scope impossible. In addition, the lack of clarity of a vision for the future of tourism is among the main problems. Participants are concerned about the current pace of regional tourism and the unexpected way it follows. For example, the uncontrolled development of tourism in Selimiye causes concern:
MÖ: People may be pleased now, but I am not so happy. In other words, tourism’s rapid and uncontrolled development is too much for Selimiye. Selimiye is not a very big place. My biggest fear is that when tourism develops rapidly, the region also receives rapid migration, then the original structure is lost. I believe the guests want to meet with the locals and stay at their houses and hostels to eat their food.
Infrastructure has been one of the most prominently emphasized topics for tourism development and its current state. The infrastructure problems that stand out are waste and recycling, electricity, water, and transportation. Inadequacies in recycling and waste management cause adverse environmental effects, especially in marine areas. Land-based pollution also negatively affects the environment. The impact of tourism on the environment originating from infrastructure isalso mentioned. In addition to waste and recycling, the region also suffers from electricity, water, and transportation problems. Bozburun especially suffers from frequent power cuts. There are problems related to clean water as well. Participants express this situation as follows:
UB: I do not need infrastructure. But there is a general situation here; everyone wants infrastructure. It is probably impossible to do it now, but the infrastructure is necessary. The water supply was terrible; they’ve just improved the water system. There were constant power cuts. It is probably a rare situation; I think they have a method of periodically reducing and increasing power. There are a lot of power cuts related to this. Naturally, this place is quiet, an area known for its quietness. Ninety-seven percent of the inhabitants do not have a generator either because if everyone runs their generators in the event of a power cut, this place will be boisterous. That’s why no one buys a generator, not to break the silence. But everything breaks down because of the frequent power cuts. One day it is the air conditioner; the other day, the refrigerator. Even if the guests know about this situation, it is challenging for us. They come to Bozburun and see that they will face such a thing, but as the operators, we find ourselves in a challenging situation.
Tourist Profile
Another prominent topic regarding tourism development in the Datça-Bozburun SEPA is the tourist profile. Throughout the first years of the development process, a foreign company, Sunsail, brought international tourists to the region. The withdrawal of this company from Turkey due to various bureaucratic processes has led to a dramatic fall in the visits of foreign tourists. The gap was soon filled with domestic tourists, secondary house owners, and daily tours. The low interest of local tourists in water sports and the lack of promotion are important dynamics behind the development of local mass tourism in Datça with a sun-sand-sea orientation.
DD: I remember the old times in Datça because I have been here since 81. There was this company, Sunsail. When Sunsail left Turkey, tourism, unfortunately, started to decline. The one and only Sunsail… I opened my business in 93, but Sunsail was here before. Thanks to Sunsail, all the companies in Datça, but chers, greengrocers, and restaurants revived. Datça was an entertainment center at that time; there were three discos, and now we don’t even have one open; we are losing our young people. There was a port by the sea; we call it a port because we don’t have a marina yet. Hopefully, they will build one. I mean, the port area was so active that all the young people would come here; some of them would sit there drinking their tea, some would drink beer, no one would interfere with anyone, and everyone was happy because they were making money. If people make money, there is peace. And you spend it accordingly.
RH: Perili Köşk, for instance, used to belong to Sunsail; it used to belong to the British. They were a significant source of income for this place. Marmaris has not been able to grow for years; it has no place to grow. Where will the city center grow? It cannot. Here in Datça, we grow perhaps three times more because we are a prominent peninsula with a larger surface area. But Marmaris attracts more tourists, it is more attractive there, and the people of Marmaris are happy with it. Why wouldn’t they? But we cannot have that here.
The tourism season in Datça lasts about four months and does not enrich with activities other than marine tourism resulting in limitations in off-season economic activities.
AB: As you can see, everyone has fun fishing. People here haven’t abandoned fishing yet; there’s some farming, there’s olive farming. Some families in the upper neighborhood are still breeding livestock.
The limitations of being a SEPA and the fact that the economic structure is based primarily on tourism indicate that there are also shortcomings in tourism investments in Datça.
BK: The thing is, you can build buildings, you can make big hotels, but is it possible to do it here, right now? Even if I had the money and a place of my own, I’d have to deal with bureaucracy to build a big hotel. I couldn’t possibly do it. But one day, when I catch that loophole, it will become more accessible because of the supply-demand relationship.
The supply and demand balance also affects the development of technological equipment and capacities.
RA: My friend did a lot of maintenance work on his boat last year. He’d be better off if he sold the boat, but it’s the same for all of us. We can’t sell our boats because of the supply and demand balance. You must find the extra money to sell your boat to get a new one. But if the balance is restored, you can sell your boat, get a new one and provide better quality service. You can build better ships, better equipped, with cameras underneath, to see under the sea. We can’t spend that much money; we’re trying to bring the ends together because tourism is limited.
In terms of the development of diving activities, the market and the supply-demand balance are considered together.:
SB: There is a spontaneous equilibrium; the capacity increases along with the number of beds. The same goes for second homes. Houses are built, and people keep coming. Someone buys a house, his relative follows, and his friend follows. This creates traffic in the restaurants and on the boats. People spend money here and there. Because tourism means money, it means a smokeless industry. There is such a balance, and there is a gradual increase. I don’t know if anyone will come for diving. We hear every year that diving boats will come. Let them come! They’ll have a blast of a time. But there’s still no sight of them.
4.1.2. Tourism Impacts and Residents’ Support
The economic effects of tourism in Datça Bozburun SEPA show similarities and differences in how they emerge and their development stages. The entrepreneurs are mainly locals. The local people have highlighted tourism’s place in the region’s economy during the interviews and in the survey. The survey participants’ answers regarding the economic aspect are statistically significant, and the opinions that tourism supports the economy are above average. This is backed by the data obtained from the interviews.
While considering the tourism economy in Datça-Bozburun, it should be noted that the revenues are limited due to transportation restrictions. The main reason is the topography of the region. There are a limited number of chain hotels, and the main tourism actors are small hotel and hostel owners and food and beverage businesses. The withdrawal of the international actor, whose name was given earlier in the “Tourism Development” section, from the Datça-Bozburun region helped retain tourism revenues in the local economy. Economic leakage, i.e., the diversion of tourism revenues to international businesses outside the place they are created, is another phenomenon that tourism creates. In the case of Marmaris, the all-inclusive system, which also includes the supply of fish and alcoholic beverages, causes economic leakage due to the dominance of international tour operators [61,62]. In contrast, in the case of Datça-Bozburun, there is a belief that tourism revenues remain in the local economy. According to data from interviews and field observations, tourism revenues stay within the local economy, except for transportation. This is because most tourists are local and being a SEPA limits mass tourism.
Economy vs. Ecology
A dilemma between tourism’s economic and environmental aspects, also present in the relevant literature, continues to exist in Datça-Bozburun. On the one hand, people expect the financial gains from tourism to continue. On the other hand, they hope the adverse effects of this situation on the environment are minimized, in other words, to make tourism sustainable. The dilemma in the Datça-Bozburun region is dominated by economism, which is also reflected in the views of the local people. As a result, the duration of living in the region emerges as a significant variable. One participant summarizes this situation as follows:
RH: Some people moved to Datça 3–4 years ago. They chose Datça because it is calm and away from the city’s noise. People want Datça’s silence and calmness to remain intact; they do not want to have a marina or an easy access road, etc. This is where a dilemma arises: if we do not wish to make these investments, if we say that there should be no four-star hotels, no five-star hotels, no buildings, and no zoning, but still want to see Datça developing in terms of tourism, this is a dilemma. The more crowded a town becomes, the better the services are. I am not advocating that “We should be like Bodrum.” They are worried that we will be like Bodrum, but it’s an excellent line; I don’t think it can be arranged.
With tourism providing seasonal employment, agriculture and animal husbandry remain in the background, causing progress in a tourism-dependent direction. Tourism and related activities depend on external supply.
DH: Incentives should be given to encourage agriculture here. In other words, the state may support our youth. Why agriculture? There is a massive amount of arable land here… But they are empty, and they should be evaluated. People say the place was full of goats in the past, but now there are ten goats or fewer. Just think about it.
The fisheries and boat tours are the main components of tourism in Datça-Bozburun. Therefore, local people combine fisheries with touristic boat tours and expand their livelihood.
DD: When we started our business here in 1993, there was only one fisherman. We wanted him to bring us the fish he caught every day. When he caught a big one, he would not see a second fish because there was no need. So, he sold that one fish. At that time, there was not that much demand. Frankly, there were no restaurants. If you had a fish, you would sell it or eat it yourself. Fish were caught as needed. But nowadays, they overfish and throw them in the freezer. This does not make any sense when you can eat fresh fish.
AD: There is also the issue of selling fish here. For example, almost nobody brings fish to Bozburun Cooperative. However, if the fish has low economic value or there is an oversupply of fish, they give them to the cooperative or try to sell them directly to the yachts in the vicinity. There are even people who do a business out of it. The guy buys fish from the cooperative, takes it, and sells it as if he caught it himself.
Tourism’s increasing cost of living is especially evident in housing rental fees. The increase in housing prices shows a similar trend. Especially with the effect of the pandemic, the demand for secondary housing in the region has increased in general, stretching the capacity of the urban infrastructure. This process also places the environment under pressure.
Environmental problems directly or indirectly related to tourism in Datça-Bozburun include pollution, decreased biodiversity in marine areas, marine traffic, and terrestrial activities.
Pollution is mainly the result of the presence of tourist boats and yachts. However, some uncertainties about collecting sewage from boats and yachts, the fact that the proposed systems do not work at the desired level, and difficulties in supervision lead to detectable pollution levels in certain areas. Pollution also has striking effects on biodiversity.
VB: Marine traffic disturbs the seals. The seal is a timid animal; when there is any human activity, it goes away and generally does not use that area. This is the visible part, and we can also observe the megafauna. Since we can easily keep large marine animals such as dolphins, seals, and turtles, we can say if they occur or not. If they cannot be observed, it means that they are disturbed. They were here last year, but why not this year? You can attribute the direct cause to sea traffic or pollution etc. Each of these boats has at least ten guests; they serve food for ten people, resulting in incredible plastic pollution. Today, we dived into a Posidonia monitoring station and saw at least 10–15 plastic bottles. They pile up and smother an area, start to dissolve, and pollute that place. When these boats cannot find a place to discharge their waste at a certain point, they will discharge it into the sea when their tanks are full. Most of them just do it. The municipality tries to fight this problem with 3–4 boats, but they cannot catch up.
In addition to pollution, it seems necessary to impose regulations regarding the stops, waste disposal, and servicing of boats.
DAH: We must ensure that the boats do not moor around here because their anchors destroy the Posidonia meadows. They are very precious; you know we need to protect them. We have been dealing with this problem for quite some time. We can put an end to this problem by installing large mooring vaults. In the summer, far too many daily boats arrive, there is heavy traffic, and all the boats anchor in the bays...
MB: Rumors, unfortunately… The sea is getting polluted daily; there is nothing we can do. Most of the waste originates from land, but there has been incredible boat traffic recently. The more the place becomes popular, the longer the boats stay. We know that some ships stay in Selimiye, sometimes for a week, sometimes for 15 days.
Respondents cite the increase in sea urchin population as an indicator of marine pollution:
UB: I don’t know much about the underwater, but the sea urchins have multiplied. They were not here at all, not even one. The sea is still clean and ruling. But if the problem continues with this pace, that is, if this is not prevented... Now I am dealing with the issue of waste disposal into the sea, individually and with the association. At the very least, we can raise awareness and educate people.
MK: I swear to God, 30 years ago, we would cook seafood on land and eat it after dipping it in the sea. You cannot do that right now. In other words, the sea is polluted, and detergents pollute the bays. You don’t see much out there, but for example, they dispose of much waste from the islands. Waste is released from Rhodes and Symi and enters the sea. Places with circulation are clean now, but much rubbish still flows into the sea. It would be better if it didn’t.
In addition, land-based pollution is reaching an alarming level in certain areas. Infrastructure and accompanying planning problems are the most significant cause of land-based pollution.
SB: This is one of the biggest problems of this year: Due to the pandemic, many people started to come to the region with their camper vans, as staying at a hotel or hostel was a little inconvenient. In other words, whoever turned a minibus into a camper van came to this region for vacation, frankly speaking, and they piled up in the parking lots even though it was forbidden. A place should have been allocated for camper vans, but this was omitted. There is a parking lot where the former teacher’s house was standing before demolishing. Plenty of camper vans parked there last summer. They dumped their wastewater into the sea in the late hours of the night. We just didn’t see it with our own eyes, but we think it’s done this way because there is no waste collection point in that area.
Zoning is another issue. The main effect of tourism on zoning and illegal construction becomes visible with secondary housing. Secondary residences and the use of houses for tourism also pressure the infrastructure.
DH: although it has nothing to do with the sea, zoning is the most fundamental problem here. Land-based waste enters the ocean from here and there, and the sea gets polluted for this reason. It is our real problem, and it is terrible… They started building those one-bedroom flats and destroyed everything. Because eight one-bedroom apartments take up the same space as two large flats but require more parking space and produce more waste. There is not enough capacity to meet all that. Once all the available land was used downtown, they built one-bedroom flats in the villages. There were 5 thousand houses 5–6 years ago; now, there are probably more than 7 thousand. Construction, construction, construction! We have no other complaints.
This title is also related to economic effects. The data obtained from the survey also show that in the perceptions of the local people, tourism creates environmental pollution, does not lead to expanding recreational and entertainment areas, and is ineffective in preserving the historical texture. Quantitative research data also indicate that tourism’s contribution to changing the environmental order is not perceived positively. Within the scope of the sociocultural dimension, most survey participants state that the crime rates and the use of addictive substances are on the rise because of the effects of tourism. On the other hand, the rate of participation in the statement directed at understanding the adverse effects of tourism on cultural values is low. It is observed that the participants are not heavily exposed to an impact caused by differences in cultural values in the region, which domestic tourists mostly visit. On the other hand, the change that is thought to be seen in the social structure can be explained by migration.
RH: The society is divided between the locals of Datça and those who settled later.
Question: Do the people of Datça want tourists?
RH: Of course. If you think about it, you are here for 12 months; there is no one in winter! No tourism.
Migration
The interview data suggest that migration divided the society in Datça into two separate sections. The first consists of middle-aged individuals with high income and education and retired people. These people are moving to the Datça-Bozburun region to get away from city life. They either entirely relocate to Datça and its surroundings by buying a property or owning a second house here in the Datça-Bozburun region.
RA: People coming from outside of Datça have different profiles. For instance, they either sell their properties in Istanbul and come with a certain amount of savings or make an income by renting their property. I know the monthly payment of a few people from this profile, but one shouldn’t generalize. Some make a living by buying a field, putting a container there, and selling chicken eggs. There may be those who do not have much of an income. They make radical decisions. There is also a group of people who do not want a life with expensive phones or computers. They have given up electronics completely. But as I said, they have a house to rent or some income, but they live here or work from home. It’s widespread now. I know a lot of people who make internet sales from home. They earn their income from online sales. In any case, those who come here are not ordinary people; they are educated, speak foreign languages, and make a living by translating. So, what do they want from here? They want this place to remain; let them have peace of mind. They have no other expectations. But the locals here have different expectations. We must strike a balance. Of course, I am not talking about unplanned urbanization and growth without infrastructure. This is something that must be avoided, not only for Datça but for any place.
The second group works seasonally in the construction and service sectors, especially along the coastline. People from this group also sometimes move to Datça and become a part of the locals. How these two groups and the third group, who consider themselves the natives of Datça, understand the development of tourism in Datça and its economic, environmental, social, and cultural effects may differ. Perceptions and attitudes towards tourism may change because of the differences in the duration of living in the region. People who have lived in the area for a long time were interviewed face-to-face. While aware of tourism’s effects, local people attach more importance to the issue of urban identity, access to education, health services, solid waste, and similar recycling opportunities since they also live there in the off-season.
DH: There is this thought that one can work and take a vacation at the same time... Young people started to come; they wouldn’t come in the past; this was always a place for retired people. But life in big cities is very challenging now; it is difficult to find a job, or even if you can, the wages are meager. Many young people who wanted to live in a small place came here.
DD: Generally, businesses are run by outsiders. The summer season is hectic, and companies cannot catch up, so they hire staff from other cities. Some of my staff members are permanent… Why don’t the young people from the local community work? Because their parents have everything, fields, properties… Unfortunately, you cannot make them work.
As far as the sociocultural dimension is concerned, the interaction between the local people and visitors is worth mentioning.
AB: People who like it quiet and peaceful and retired people prefer this place because there are no nightclubs, therefore no young population. Young people who come here in the summer get bored. Nowadays, most of the visitors are from Istanbul. They come to Datça for a holiday to escape the Istanbul crowd. Just have a look at the natural beauty of this place. The air is always fresh because it is a peninsula. I believe the oxygen level is the second-highest globally, after Canada. The atmosphere here is perfect for asthma patients. Of course, there are shortcomings; we are a tiny town in the end. If we had a more planned way of growing, we could have been a more excellent town with fewer concrete structures. Measures have been taken for the future though; it would be more pleasing if we became a more excellent town.
The visitors in Datça are those who stay in secondary homes and rent houses, domestic tourists who visit small hotels, tourists who come with their camper vans, and those who remain in camping areas. Knowing the tourist typology is essential to examining tourism’s sociocultural, economic, and environmental effects. The participants particularly highlighted the financial gains from tourism.
4.2. Quantitative Findings
Psychometric properties for each construct in the measurement model were examined using confirmatory factor analysis. As shown in Table 2, all factor loadings are greater than 0.70, except for three items. The factor loadings of these three items are higher than 0.50, and a lower limit ranging from 0.50 and 0.60 may be acceptable in exploratory research [15]. As suggested by Hair et al. [63], all Cronbach’s alpha values are above 0.60. In addition, composite reliability (CR) values higher than the suggested 0.70 threshold value and average variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs have more than the threshold value of 0.50 [63].
Discriminant validity was examined by the HTMT ratio and Fornell–Larcker criterion. Table 3 demonstrates that the square root of each construct’s AVE value (diagonal values) is greater than the correlation coefficients corresponding to adequate discriminant validity. In addition, the HTMT ratios of all constructs are less than the 0.85 threshold value [64]. Considering all these findings, it can be said that the discriminant validity of the constructs is satisfactory.
The complete results of the structural model are summarized in Table 4. SRMR value for the structural model is 0.074, which indicates a good model fit. Stone–Geisser’s Q2 value (0.098) is positive; it indicates that the structural model possesses a significant predictive relevance. The path coefficients between economic impacts (β = 0.226, t-value = 3.109), social impacts (β = 0.134, t-value = 2.056), and cultural impacts (β = 0.236, t-value = 3.566) have significant effect on the residents’ support. However, environmental impacts and residents’ support (β = 0.063, t-value = 1.010) have no significant relationship. The Cohen f2 values for effect size are found to be acceptable (Table 3), such as 0.02 (low), 0.15 (moderate), and 0.35 (high) [59].
In light of these results, as can be seen in Table 4., H1, H3, and H4 are supported, whereas H2 is not.
5. Conclusions
This study examines the views of key stakeholders and residents on tourism development and the effects of tourism in Datça-Bozburun, a unique environment-protected area with a triple bottom approach and social exchange theory. In addition, the economic, social, cultural, and environmental effects of tourism perceived by residents on the support given to tourism are presented. The results obtained based on social exchange theory and the triple bottom approach provide essential information and insights on tourism development economic, sociocultural and environmental effects of tourism.
First of all, there are various implications of the emergence of tourism as emergent rather than planned. The first conclusion reached in the study is that the historical context of tourism development is predominant in the perception of tourism effects. In the early 2000s, tourism, directly and indirectly, affected economic growth. Main financial products concentrate on trade, using daily consumer goods, selling construction materials and household goods for residences, catering services, and souvenirs. The current tourism structure began to settle in the mid-2000s. The most substantial tourism development factors are marine tourism and boat trips. Pioneers of tourism in the region were foreign tourists from Greece by boat. In the tourism development process, where the local people served as accommodation providers, and fishing boats served a dual purpose of fishing and tourism, the tourist groups brought by international travel agencies have provided an economic contribution to the local people, and the number of touristic activities has increased. The global tour operator has stopped its operations in the ongoing process, and the tourist profile has altered gradually. Tourism shifted from nature-based tourism, particularly sea sports, to mass tourism (sea, sun, sand). This fact indicates that the beginnings permeate the whole aspects of tourism development. We should note that tourism development must be accorded with the SPA’s unique attributes. It will also be possible to harmonize the capabilities developed in one field. For example, nature-based resources should be presented as points of attraction to overcome the short tourism season and beach tourism effects. In addition to the ongoing boat tour activities in the marine area, the pressure of sea-sun-sand-oriented terrestrial tourism continues. On the other hand, nature-based tourism and recreation activities, such as hiking, cycling, and camping, progress in parallel with mass tourism. Therefore, a complex and dynamic tourism structure comes to the fore rather than a monolithic one. In summary, it is seen that proactive planning by the characteristics of each SPA would be meaningful in terms of the effects of tourism.
The second result obtained in the study is that the economic impact of tourism positively and significantly affects the support given to tourism. The economic effects of tourism in the study area have increased the income and employment of the local people. Therefore, they have a positive and significant impact on the support given to tourism. In contrast, both interviews and field notes show that, in parallel with the literature [39,43,44], the economic structure is oriented towards the tourism-based construction sector. In this sense, it has been concluded that the development of SPA has unique aspects but generally parallels the development of tourism. However, we think that for the economic effects to be sustainable in the long term, they should be subject to continuous monitoring. Based on the triple bottom approach, giving more importance to economism than environmental and sociocultural profits negatively affect the balance of sustainability.
Secondary residences developing in addition to tourism movements in Datça-Bozburun and house rental (Airbnb) applications, which became more prominent with Covid, increased migration, mainly due to the construction sector. In the study, two headings regarding the phenomenon of migration came to the fore—the first highlights the employee migration that develops due to tourism movements. Young people with a low level of education work seasonally, especially in the construction sector. The second group comes from the middle-class and high-income groups. The region, which was previously preferred by the retired and the third age, has started to be chosen by those with high-income levels working remotely with the effect of Covid 19 in the following period. The interviews show that this situation changes the social structure and its economic impact. The first feature emphasized by the local people in the difference due to tourism is that the calm lifestyle they are accustomed to in Datça has started to change. In addition, among the effects of tourism, the increase in the habit of using harmful substances increased crime rates, and conflicts based on cultural differences are noted. Although aligned with the findings, social change occurs gradually, and impacts are insignificant. Hence, the results directly related to tourism have a relatively lower effect on the residents’ support for tourism.
One of the most striking results of the study is that perceptions of environmental impacts do not affect support. One reason is that Datça-Bozburun is at a stage that focuses on economic development, and ecological effects are not observed in destination development stages. Strict legal regulations and controls on protected areas have prevented rapid environmental degradation in the destination. Conversely, field observations and interview findings indicate that environmental damage has begun to be observed and will progress rapidly if not well managed. While the regulations in the marine areas are preventive to some extent, they harm the environment due to factors such as pressure from the terrestrial region, insufficient infrastructure, unplanned settlements, migration, and population growth. Another issue is being late in preparing a land management plan and focusing only on protection in the current situation. For sustainability, it is necessary to balance protection and use in protected areas. For this, the fact that both the local people and the tourists adopt their characteristics and raise awareness about these principles will contribute to the prevention of adverse environmental effects in the long term. Local people do not highlight the negative impact of tourism due to the high level of protection due to the SPA.
5.1. Theoretical Implications
This study is one of the first studies to deal with the development of tourism in SPAs and the support given to tourism in a multifaceted way. The study depicts tourism’s economic, sociocultural, and environmental effects in the context of destination development stages. It also determines these variables’ effects on tourism support. With this aspect of the study, it is seen that the propositions of social exchange theory are validated. Accordingly, the perceptions of the local people and the main stakeholders about the effects of tourism show that the support for tourism is high in the first stages when the economic aspect of tourism is at the forefront. Besides, it shows the parallels and differences between mass tourism development and tourism development in SPAs. It also contributes to the literature showing the scope and functioning of the management plans in the conservation areas of tourism. Another contribution shows the challenges of tourism management in SPAs, where different institutional contexts and the responsibilities and authorities of various institutions overlap.
5.2. Managerial Implications
One of the chief problems observed in the field is that it is not sufficiently emphasized that the region is a “Special Environmental Protection Area.” Since the main reason for tourism in the region is a SPA, visitors should be informed. In this sense, promotion and public relations activities emphasizing “special environmental protection area” should be prioritized so the region can choose its tourist. The lack of emphasis on the region being a “Special Environmental Protection Area” is a significant problem. However, the fact that the region is a special environmental protection area is indeed the main reason for tourism to exist, and visitors should be made aware of this. In this sense, for the region to be selective of its tourists, priority should be given to the promotion and public relations that emphasize the “special environmental protection area” aspect.
Another issue is the deficiencies in cooperation and coordination for tourism. Employing a coordinating committee or commission for sustainable tourism development in special environmental protection areas seems essential. The partnership can be effective in nature protection and the emergence of new products and services through interdisciplinary work. For instance, activities such as developing dishes for seafood, identifying the existing local cuisine, listing assets that may be subject to geographical marking, and assets such as Datça almonds can be directed by groups that will ensure coordination. In addition, the capacity of local travel agencies can be increased, and they can play a role in the organization and operation of tours. The effective use of public resources and their incentives and support seem essential to achieve these.
In addition to these issues, it is necessary to develop various criteria for tourism employment, increase the quality of the workforce, and enable continuous education by establishing practical cooperation with existing educational institutions. Furthermore, in parallel with the Management Plan work carried out by WWF-Turkey in the region, the need for dynamic tourism planning that can be put into practice in the short term by considering the unique structure of the area arises. In this sense, it is essential to establish systems that will maximize the participation of local people in tourism activities and environmental protection initiatives.
Besides the implications on a macro level, we should note several recommendations in local settings. Firstly, in the case of Datça-Bozburun, the local authorities tend to implement some provisions for waste management. One of the common practices is to deliver electronic cards to collect waste from the boats. As a result, the system gained acceptance and has legal protection. On the other hand, the prevention does not fit current conditions due to the lack of capacities and coordination. In the same vein, the deficiencies of collaboration among civil actors, including NGOs, and the degree of involvement in environmental issues seem limited. Hence, the projects and initiatives impeding residents’ participation would be practical.
Finally, as one participant stated, “the vision should be towards sea and nature instead of building new hotels” it seems necessary to carry out other research and development activities, both theoretically and practically, to establish a vision related to tourism and to establish an understanding that is sensitive to nature and increases economic, environmental, social, and cultural gains.
5.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions
This study has several limitations. Firstly, it presents a single case. Hence, the multiple case studies on the SPAs may pave the way to ascertain the phenomenon better. Secondly, considering the dynamic structure of tourism and society, a longitudinal research design may provide more accurate and comprehensive conclusions.
Further research may take tourism development from a resource-based strategic approach, particularly the core competence of destinations. Although well-known for its natural properties, strategic decisions may play a vital role in tourism management and perspective development.
The essential touristic value similar SPAs provide is its beaches in desolate coves with an intact environment. The best way to learn what is valuable to people visiting a place is to ask them. A more holistic understanding can be developed in future research projects by taking the tourists’ opinions while visiting SEPA.
Conceptualization, H.S.; Methodology, H.S. and D.K.; Writing—original draft, H.S.; Writing—review & editing, D.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of WWF Turkey.
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
The Characteristics of respondents.
| f | ||
|---|---|---|
| Gender | Female | 30.0 |
| Male | 70.0 | |
| Education | Primary | 20.6 |
| Secondary | 38.4 | |
| Higher | 39.4 | |
| Living in the region | 1–10 years | 35.4 |
| 11–20 years | 20.5 | |
| 21–30 years | 18.8 | |
| 31–40 years | 12.0 | |
| 41–50 years | 9.4 | |
| 51–60 years | 2.6 | |
| 61–70 years | 1.3 |
Measurement model.
| Construct/Items | Mean | SD | Loadings | Cronbach Alpha | CR | AVE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Economic impacts | 0.765 | 0.850 | 0.588 | |||
| E1 | 4.570 | 1.067 | 0.814 | |||
| E3 | 4.599 | 1.145 | 0.821 | |||
| E6 | 4.731 | 0.983 | 0.673 | |||
| E7 | 4.735 | 0.903 | 0.751 | |||
| Social impacts | 0.744 | 0.841 | 0.639 | |||
| S2 | 2.828 | 1.169 | 0.857 | |||
| S4 | 3.023 | 1.194 | 0.786 | |||
| S5 | 3.259 | 1.203 | 0.751 | |||
| Environmental impacts | 0.615 | 0.751 | 0.505 | |||
| Cev1 | 2.152 | 1.160 | 0.784 | |||
| Cev4 | 2.628 | 1.226 | 0.596 | |||
| Cev5 | 2.634 | 1.176 | 0.737 | |||
| Cultural impacts | 0.717 | 0.840 | 0.641 | |||
| K1 | 3.291 | 1.120 | 0.848 | |||
| K2 | 3.492 | 1.069 | 0.885 | |||
| K4 | 3.657 | 0.965 | 0.648 | |||
| Residents’ support | 0.806 | 0.863 | 0.558 | |||
| D1 | 3.932 | 0.924 | 0.714 | |||
| D2 | 4.094 | 0.751 | 0.757 | |||
| D3 | 4.016 | 0.853 | 0.745 | |||
| D4 | 3.803 | 0.987 | 0.743 | |||
| D5 | 3.686 | 1.205 | 0.774 |
Discriminant validity.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cultural impacts | 0.800 | ||||
| Social impacts | 0.007 (0.098) | 0.799 | |||
| Residents’ support | 0.361 (0.446) | 0.169 (0.178) | 0.747 | ||
| Economical impacts | 0.455 (0.611) | 0.134 (0.188) | 0.371 (0.456) | 0.767 | |
| Environmental impacts | 0.365 (0.611) | 0.091 (0.182) | 0.233 (0.327) | 0.319 (0.523) | 0.710 |
The Structural Model.
| Relations | Β | t-Value | f2 | Decision |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Economic impacts → Residents’ support | 0.226 | 3.109 | 0.051 | Supported |
| Social impacts → Residents’ support | 0.134 | 2.056 | 0.022 | Supported |
| Cultural impacts → Residents’ support | 0.236 | 3.566 | 0.048 | Supported |
| Environmental impacts → Residents’ support | 0.063 | 1.010 | 0.020 | Rejected |
| Residents support Q2 = 0.098, R2 = 0.206 | ||||
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