1. Introduction
Over 800 million people worldwide (10% of the population) have chronic renal disease (CRD) [1]. CRD is more common in older people, women, and people with diabetes and high blood pressure [2]. Low- and middle-income countries face a significant burden of CRD [3,4]. Chronic renal disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide [1]. During the period 1990–2017, CRD mortality increased by 41.5% globally [5]. Over one million patients were predicted to have end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally two decades ago, with a 7% annual increase [6]. In Sudan, the prevalence of CRD ranges from 7.7 to 11%, with an estimated incidence of new cases of 70–140/million per year [7,8]. Further, 1000 new patients are diagnosed with ESRD each year, and the most common cause of renal failure in Sudanese people (53.6%) is unknown [9,10]. In general, the number of patients with ESRD (who require dialysis or renal transplant to survive) is increasing, and it is becoming a major public health concern worldwide [11].
In 2007, there were over 1.6 million dialysis patients and half a million renal transplant recipients worldwide [12]. Renal transplantation remains the most effective CRD/ESRD treatment, accounting for 28% of total renal therapy in Sudan [12,13]. Transplant rejection can be hyperacute (minutes to hours), acute (days to weeks), or chronic (months to years) [14]. The International Society of Nephrology analyzed data from 182 countries and reported a rejection rate of 59% [15]. Another study conducted in Iran identified the clinical causes of renal allograft nephrectomy, with chronic rejection (38%) being the most common cause [16,17]. Furthermore, a study performed between November 2011 and 2015 at Sharg El-Neel Hospital in Khartoum, Sudan, discovered that the rate of acute rejection was 10.4% [9]. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing is an important step in transplantation, and a well-matched donor is critical for successful transplantation [17].
HLA genes are located on chromosome 6p (short arm) in the distal portion of the 21.3 band, one of the most polymorphic and gene-dense regions [18,19]. HLA complex genes and their protein products are divided into three classes based on their tissue distribution, structure, and function [20]. MHC class II antigens encoded by the HLA-DM, -DO, -DP, -DQ, and -DR loci, and their products are included in the immunoglobulin supergene family [21]. HLA-DR is a heterodimer comprising an alpha chain (DRA) and a beta chain (DRB) [19]. According to the IPD-IMGT/HLA database, HLA-DRB1 is the most polymorphic in class II of this system, with 3298 alleles in September 2022 (
Several benefits are associated with HLA matching in organ transplants, such as kidneys, including improved graft function, reduced the incidence of acute or chronic rejection, extended graft survival, and the potential for reduced immunosuppression [28]. It was reported that patient-donor matching of HLA determinants lowers the risks of chronic and acute GVHD (graft-versus-host disease) [29]. Early studies indicated that HLA-DRB1 mismatch is a particular risk factor for rejection and is critical in the first six months after transplantation [24,27,30,31]. As a result of the realization that HLA plays a significant role in transplantation, the use of HLA typing in transplantation has seen numerous advancements [32,33]. Owing to this development, HLA typing has progressed from identifying HLA proteins to identifying HLA gene variations [31]. The 1000 Genomes Project provides an in-depth analysis of common genetic variations (single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and Insertions–deletions (indels)) in humans and their association with diseases [34]. HLA variants are strongly linked to various diseases and organ transplantation [22,31,35,36]. SNPs are single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in DNA sequences with a population allele frequency of 1% or higher [37,38]. SNVs can be found in both the coding and non-coding regions of the human genome [39]. Non-synonymous SNVs are a type of single variant that represent amino acid substitutions and protein variations [40]. Previous studies have indicated that nsSNPs account for approximately half of the mutations involved in various genetic diseases [41]. Indels are another type of significant genomic variant that are insertions or deletions of one or more DNA nucleotides [42]. The current study aimed to identify functional or marker genetic variants within HLA-DRB1 exon 2 in patients with renal transplant status (acceptance and rejection).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Samples Information
This hospital-based case-control study was conducted at Ahmed Gasim and Ibn Sena Hospitals. Blood samples were collected from March to September 2021 using a convenience sampling method. Samples were collected from individuals of any age and sex who had received a renal transplant, regardless of whether they developed graft rejection (acute, hyperacute, or chronic) or acceptance within the first six months. Participants who had their renal transplants rejected because of medical errors or negligence were excluded. The total sample size was 60, divided equally into three groups. The first group included participants who had graft acceptance for more than the first six months. The second group of participants had graft rejection in the first six months, and the third group was the control group. The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the National University-Sudan under approval No. NU170220219 (date of approval: 17 February 2021). Written informed consent was obtained from the patient(s) for their anonymized information to be published in this article.
2.2. DNA Isolation, Amplification, and Sequencing
Genomic DNA was extracted from the blood samples using QiaAmp blood extraction kits according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). The extracted DNA was tested for quality using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (Implen, München, Germany) and stored at −20 °C until molecular analysis.
The following primers were used to amplify the human HLA-DRB1 gene (target region): Forward primer: 5′GTG CTC TCA GAA CTG CTT GC 3′, and reverse primer: 5′ CCT CAG GAA GAC GGA GGA TGA 3′. The PCR reaction mixture contained 1 µL of the extracted DNA added to 4 µL PCR master mix (Solis Biodyne, Tartu, Estonia) containing 1 U DNA polymerase, 12.5 mM MgCl2, and 4 mM dNTPs. The PCR thermal conditions were as follows: Initial denaturation at 94 °C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94 °C for 30 s, annealing at 57 °C for 30 s, extension at 72 °C for 30 s, and a final extension step at 72 °C for 10 min. The thermal conditions were determined using a 2721 Thermocycler (Applied Biosystems, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Budapest, Hungary). Following PCR, the amplicons were visualized using 2% gel electrophoresis (Major Sciences, London, United Kingdom) by applying the PCR product to an electrical current adjusted to 100 V and 70 A for one h.
The amplified PCR amplicons were sequenced in duplicate based on both directions’ primers by the Sanger dideoxynucleotide chain-termination sequencing method using a 3730XL DNA analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Waltham, MA, USA) by Macrogen (Macrogen Inc., Amsterdam, The Netherlands).
2.3. Sequences and Variants Analysis Using Bioinformatics
DNA sequencing results of the 60 samples were obtained as AB1 files. Initially, the Chromatogram Explorer program (version 5.0.2.3) was used to assess the overall quality of the sequences (read Phred quality score), trim low-quality ends, and convert AB1 to FASTA formats [43]. Subsequently, the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) algorithm was used to check the specificity of these sequences by comparing them to the Homo sapiens genome (GRCh38.p12) using the Ensembl genome browser (
The chromosomal location of the detected variants was initially submitted to the Ensembl Variant Effect Predictor (VEP) [47]. VEP can annotate, analyze, and prioritize genomic variants in both coding and non-coding regions. VEP was used to determine the variants’ availability, frequency, and amino acid positions. Non-synonymous SNVs were then submitted sequentially to SIFT [48], PolyPhen-2 [49], PredictSNP [50], PANTHER [51], SNP&GO [52], SNAP2 [53], and PhD-SNP [54] tools to differentiate between functional (deleterious) and non-functional nsSNVs. The I-mutant server was used to determine whether nsSNVs affected protein stability [55]. The HOPE server was used to evaluate the effects of nsSNVs on protein structure [56]. The location of the domain and high evolutionary conservation were then determined using the InterPro and Consurf servers [57,58]. Moreover, the ProtParam server was used to assess the impact of nsSNVs on protein physicochemical parameters [59]. Finally, the STRING database (Version 11.5) was used to predict associations between HLA-DRB1 and most related proteins to construct a protein-protein network based on physical interactions and functional associations [60]. The study methodology is summarized in Figure 1.
The following are websites for the previous tools: VEP
3. Results
This study used DNA from 40 samples (acceptance and rejection) and 20 controls to target the HLA-DRB1 exon 2. BLAST revealed that all DNA quality-checked sequences showed high similarity (>99%) and specificity for the HLA-DRB1 target region. Multiple sequence alignments revealed seven SNVs in ten samples and controls. The Ensembl variant effect predictor was used to collect broad information on seven SNVs, two of which were novel (Table 1).
Three of the seven detected SNVs were non-synonymous and were only located in the rejected samples (R3, R9, and R16), whereas the remaining were synonymous (Table 1). To identify the deleterious effects of nsSNVs at the functional level, seven different tools (SIFT, PolyPhen, PredictSNP, PANTHER, SNP&GO, SNAP2, and PhD-SNP) with different prediction algorithms were used. Two nsSNVs (K41N and R109S) were predicted to be pathogenic by all seven tools, whereas the third (Y59H) was predicted by only four (Table 2). Furthermore, the I-mutant server predicted that all nsSNVs would affect the protein stability (Table 2).
At the structural level (using the HOPE server), the new residues differed in size, charge, and hydrophobicity. The new residues also influenced hydrogen bond formation, ionic interactions, multimer contacts or interactions, and the function of their region (Table 3 and Figure 2).
The Consurf server and InterPro database were used to predict the locations of variants in evolutionarily conserved and domain regions. The three nsSNVs K41N, Y59H, and R109S received scores of 5, 1, and 6, respectively, indicating that they were average, variable, and conserved, respectively (Figure 3).
Additionally, two of the three nsSNVs (Y59H and R109S) were discovered in the MHC II b N domain (MHC class II, beta chain, N-terminal) with the accession number IPR000353. All nsSNVs demonstrated changes in the overall protein physicochemical parameters. The properties altered by all three nsSNVs were the molecular weight, theoretical isoelectric point (pI), atomic composition, instability index, and GRAVY (Table 4).
HLA-DRB1 interacts with HLA-DRA, HLA-DMA, CD74, HLA-DMB, HLA-DPA1, CD4, BTNL2, and CD86, in that order, according to the protein-protein interaction network (Figure 4). Finally, no significant variants that had an impact on or worked as markers for transplant acceptance samples were found (Table 1).
4. Discussion
Chronic renal diseases in general and end-stage renal disease in particular are major health concerns in Sudan and around the world [1,6,7,8,9]. The growing number of ESRD patients places strain on both individuals (costs of dialysis or transplantation) and governments (increasing the financial burden of health care) [61]. Renal transplantation remains the most effective ESRD treatment, and HLA typing is the most important test in this process [13,17]. The HLA region is extremely diverse, and HLA-DRB1 is the most polymorphic in class II of this system [19,62]. HLA-DRB1 protein is significantly associated with graft survival, particularly in the first six months after transplantation [27,28]. HLA-DRB1 exon 2 is important because it encodes antigen-binding sites and contains the most pathological single nucleotide variants (SNVs) [24,25,26,27]. The present study aimed to identify functional or marker genetic variants in HLA-DRB1 exon 2 in renal transplant recipients (acceptance and rejection) using sequencing technology.
This study included 60 DNA samples (from various families) divided into three equal groups: Control, renal transplant rejection, and acceptance. The alignment algorithm identified seven SNVs at six locations, three of which were non-synonymous and could have functional consequences. Two of the three nsSNVs were found in the public domain archive of simple genetic polymorphisms (
At the structural level, all the variant amino acids showed differences in physical properties, bond formation, and a variety of interactions. The HOPE server predicted that the three nsSNVs are situated in a unique region called Beta-1. According to the Universal Protein Resource, the beta-1 region is a structural part of the peptide-binding cleft of HLA-DRB1, consisting of 94 amino acids. Additionally, beta-1 interacts with the T-cell receptors CDR2 and CDR3 (complementarity-determining regions 2 and 3) alpha domains through hydrogen bonds.
In terms of physicochemical properties, the HOPE tool, as previously mentioned, revealed differences in the residue levels, whereas ProtParam indicated that the variants caused changes in the entire protein. All the nsSNVs detected agreed to alter the molecular weight, theoretical pi (isoelectric point), atomic composition, and GRAVY of the protein. The extinction coefficients and total positive charge were altered in a few variants, but the aliphatic index and total negative charge remained the same. In general, all the nsSNVs had nearly equal effects on the overall physicochemical properties of the protein. Most proteins function consecutively with other proteins in living organisms, and protein-protein interaction studies provide crucial information for understanding the complicated biological processes that occur in live cells [65,66]. Thus, to gain a better understanding, a network of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) was constructed using the STRING database. Deleterious variants in the HLA-DRB1 protein could disrupt its interaction with confidence interaction proteins. Only one synonymous SNV (K41K) was found in the transplant acceptance samples in the current study. The K41K variant could not be identified as an acceptance marker because it appeared in both acceptance and rejection cases.
Conceptualization, M.M.H.; Methodology, M.M.H., M.A.H., S.S.A., N.S.M., H.A., O.M. and M.A.M.; Formal analysis, M.M.H.; Investigation, M.M.H., N.S.M., H.A. and O.M.; Supervision, M.A.H., S.S.A., W.O. and M.A.M.; Validation, M.A.H., S.S.A., A.E.S., A.A. and M.A.M.; Visualization, M.M.H.; Writing—original draft, M.M.H., M.A.H. and N.S.M.; Writing—review & editing, S.R.M.I., K.F.G., S.F.M., G.A.M., A.A., A.E.S., W.O., S.S.A. and M.A.M.; Resources: S.R.M.I., K.F.G., S.F.M. and G.A.M.; Project administration, M.M.H.; Funding acquisition, W.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the National University-Sudan (NU170220219; date of approval: 17 February 2021).
The sequences data that support the findings of this study are available in [National Center for Biotechnology Information-genebank database] at [
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Flowchart of the work methodology. The names that appear after the symbol “-” represent prediction tools.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Structural alteration by HOPE server. The protein is shown in grey, the wild-type residue in green, and the variant residue in red. The structures from left to right represent R109S, Y59H, and K41N variants.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Protein-protein interaction network of HLA-DRB1 predicted by the STRING database. The current illustration depicts the ten proteins with the highest total probability score. The red, green, blue, purple, yellow, light blue, and black lines indicate the presence of fusion, neighborhood, co-occurrence, experimental, text mining, database, and co-expression evidence, respectively.
General information of detected SNVs.
| Serial No. | SMPs Code No. | N.P Exon 2 | Chr. Location | Variants | Variants Type | SNV AVAIL. | AA Change | Variants Allele Frequencies ALL/African | ClinVar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1000 Genome | GnomAD Genomes | NCBI ALFA | |||||||||
| 1. | R3/C12 | 5 | 6:32584113 | C/A | SNV | Novel | R122R | - | - | - | - |
| 2. | R20 | 14 | 6:32,584,122 | T/C | SNV | rs1,136,782 | T119T | 0.065/0.129 | 0.001/0.002 | 0.006/0.013 | - |
| 3. | R16 | 44 | 6:32,584,152 | T/A | SNV | rs750,986,830 | R109S | - | - | - | - |
| 4. | R9 | 196 | 6:32,584,304 | A/G | SNV | rs11,554,462 | Y59H | 0.072/0.167 | 0.169/0.318 | 0.166/0.290 | - |
| 5. | R3/C10 | 242 | 6:32,584,350 | C/T | SNV | rs17,885,011 | E43E | 0.063/0.060 | 0.112/0.069 | 0.096/0.071 | - |
| 6. | A7/R12 | 248 | 6:32,584,356 | C/T | SNV | rs17,887,028 | K41K | - | - | 0.000/0.000 | - |
| 7. | R3 | 248 | 6:32,584,356 | C/A | SNV | Novel | K41N | - | - | - | - |
SMPs code No.: The code number of samples containing genetic variant(s), which are as follows: Rejection (R), acceptance (A), and control (C). N.P Exon 2: Position of a nucleotide in Exon 2. Chr. Location: Chromosomes Location. SNV AVAIL.: SNV availability in the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism database (dbSNP). AA Change: Type and location of amino acid changed. ClinVar: ClinVar database clinical significance records (
The functional effect and stability index of non-synonymous detected SNVs.
| Variant Description | SNV ID | AA |
SIFT | PolyPhen-2 | PredictSNP | PANTHER | SNP&GO | SNAP2 | PhD-SNP | I-Mutant |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| chr6(GRCh38.p12):32584152T>A | rs750986830 | R109S | Deleterious |
Probably damaging |
Deleterious | Possibly damaging | Disease (0.908) | Effect (47) | Disease | Decrease (−1.29) |
| chr6(GRCh38.p12):32584304A>G | rs11554462 | Y59H | Tolerated |
Possibly damaging |
Neutral | Probably damaging | Disease (0.551) | Effect (52) | Neutral | Decrease (−1.60) |
| chr6(GRCh38.p12):32584356C>A | Novel | K41N | Deleterious |
Probably damaging |
Deleterious | Possibly damaging | Disease (0.785) | Effect (44) | Disease | Decrease (−0.34) |
Variant Description: In variant call format (VCF). SNV ID: Accession number in dbSNP. AA Change: Type and location of amino acid changed. The value of the predicted score is represented by the numbers between the brackets.
Structural effects of nsSNVs in a protein sequence using the HOPE server.
| Distinctions and Characteristics | rs750986830 |
rs11554462 |
Novel |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arginine | Serine | Tyrosine | Histidine | Lysine | Asparagine | |
| Schematic structures | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] | [Image omitted. Please see PDF.] |
| Size | large | Small | large | Small | large | Small |
| Charge | Positive | Neutral | - | - | Positive | Neutral |
| Hydrophobicity-value | Less hydrophobic | More hydrophobic | More hydrophobic | Less hydrophobic | - | - |
| Contacts | The wild-type residue forms eight hydrogen bonds and one salt bridge with other residues. | The mutant-type has an impact on the original’s hydrogen bond formation, binding site, and ionic interactions. | The wild-type residue forms a hydrogen bond with eight residues. | The mutant-type has an impact on the original’s hydrogen bond formation. | The wild-type forms a hydrogen bond, a salt bridge with one residue, and is involved in multimer contacts. | The mutant type affects hydrogen bond formation, ionic interaction, and the development of multimer interactions. |
| Structure | The mutation is located within a stretch of residues annotated in UniProt as a special region: Beta-1. The differences in amino acid properties can disturb this region and disturb its function. | |||||
UniProt: Universal database of protein (
The effect of nsSNVs on HLA-DRB1’ protein physicochemical parameters.
| Reference & Variants | Molecular Weight | Theoretical pI | Atomic Composition | Total −ve | Total +ve | Extinction Coefficients | Instability Index | Aliphatic Index | GRAVY |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reference | 29966.14 | 7.64 | C1342H2068N368O389S12 | 25 | 26 | 41285 | 48.92 | 77.93 | −0.207 |
| R109S | 29897.03 | 7.00 | C1339H2061N365O390S12 | 25 | 25 | 41285 | 48.20 | 77.93 | −0.193 |
| Y59H | 29940.10 | 7.66 | C1339H2066N370O388S12 | 25 | 26 | 39795 | 49.54 | 77.93 | −0.214 |
| K41N | 29952.07 | 7.00 | C1340H2062N368O390S12 | 25 | 25 | 41285 | 47.70 | 77.93 | −0.205 |
The accession number for the reference sequence is P01911 (
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Details
; Hussain, Mohamed A 2
; Ali, Sababil S 3 ; Mahdi, Mohammed A 4
; Nouh, Saad Mohamed 5
; AbdElbagi, Hanadi 5 ; Mohamed, Osama 6
; Sherif, Asmaa E 7 ; Osman, Wadah 8 ; Ibrahim, Sabrin R M 9
; Ghazawi, Kholoud F 10 ; Miski, Samar F 11 ; Mohamed, Gamal A 12
; Ashour, Ahmed 7
1 Department of Hematology, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences, National University, Khartoum 11111, Sudan
2 Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, International University of Africa, Khartoum 11111, Sudan;
3 Department of Parasitology and Medical Entomology, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences, National University, Khartoum11111, Sudan;
4 Department of Chemical Pathology, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences, National University, Khartoum 11111, Sudan;
5 Molecular Biology Unit, Sirius Training and Research Centre, Khartoum 11111, Sudan;
6 Department of Molecular Biology, National University Biomedical Research Institute, National University, Khartoum 11111, Sudan;
7 Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia;
8 Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia;
9 Preparatory Year Program, Department of Chemistry, Batterjee Medical College, Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia;
10 Clinical Pharmacy Department, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 24382, Saudi Arabia;
11 Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah 30078, Saudi Arabia;
12 Department of Natural Products and Alternative Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;