1. Introduction
Haors are large floodplain depressions with a bowl-like shape in the northeastern region of Bangladesh. They have distinctive hydro-ecological qualities and cover around 1.99 million hectares (19,998 sq km) of land, sheltering 19.37 million people [1]. There are around 373 haors in all, spread over Bangladesh’s seven districts of Sunamganj, Habiganj, Netrakona, Kishoreganj, Sylhet, Maulavibazar, and Brahmanbaria [1,2]. Only one agricultural season, rabi (the winter season), is used in the haor region to produce boro rice, potatoes, groundnuts, sweet potatoes, mustard, legumes, etc. Boro rice of the haor area has a special importance because its harvesting time is 15–30 days earlier than other types, which helps overcome the pre-seasonal scarcity of rice. Shuvra [3] stated that 1.74 million hectares of the entire agricultural area are devoted to rice crops, occupying around 90.2% of that total, while the remaining 9.8% is used for crops other than rice. The amount of rice produced is around 5.25 million metric tons, which accounts for 16.5% of Bangladesh’s overall rice output and 27% of its overall boro production [2].
Various nations throughout the world are already noticing the effects of climate change. Increased frequency, intensity, and severity of weather- and climate-related phenomena, such as hotter weather, sea level rise, heavy rains, high humidity, and floods, cause property damage and affect vital infrastructure as well as agriculture, forestry, and human health [4,5]. Bangladesh, a developing nation, is not an exception to the countries that experience difficult climatic conditions like drought, floods, riverbank erosion, waterlogging, and cyclonic storm surges in various vulnerable areas like the char, haor, and coastal areas [6,7]. According to the UNDP [8], extreme natural hazards such flash floods, hailstorms, droughts, and variations in upstream river discharge are some of the regular manifestations of the consequences of climate change on rural regions. These disasters represent a major danger to the lives of the locals. The majority of residents in the haor region work in monocrop farming and fishing, and they are frequently out of work because there are no other viable sources of income [9]. In addition, the absence of work prospects, communication infrastructure, and proper attention from the government and other service providers make the situation worse and can resemble a famine for these people. Flash floods, siltation, and homestead erosion are regular occurrences that significantly reduce or obliterate agricultural yields. Although the area’s poor and extremely poor residents experience severe food insecurity, the area’s medium and resource-rich farmers (many of whom are absentee landlords) produce excess rice [10]. Consequently, the food insecurity persists forever [9].
The cultivation of a single boro crop and associated activities provide the haor families with their primary source of income. The haor economy has become extremely vulnerable to seasonality, characterized by the whims of nature, due to the unfavorable geography of the haor region and the recent trend of the negative impacts of climate change on livelihoods, especially in these areas [11]. Furthermore, flooding in these wetlands in the northeast is a major worry today because it is predicted that climate change will cause these floods to increase in frequency in the near future, making the sustainability of farming and production even less guaranteed [12,13]. Due to its dependence on nature, boro rice cultivation is constantly at risk of partial to total devastation from pre-monsoon flash floods immediately before harvest [14,15]. As an example, the 2017 flash flood caused 0.88 MT of boro rice to be lost in the haor wetlands [16]. Therefore, as agricultural output is risky and uncertain, farm revenue alone cannot feed the growing population [17]. As a result, farm households need to find alternate sources of income throughout both the lean and prolific periods of agriculture. They may combine several agricultural and nonfarm occupations to generate revenue through this alternate method, ensuring a comfortable standard of living [18].
However, Bangladesh’s agricultural sector also relies heavily on fisheries and on livestock for a number of purposes, such as for transportation, revenue, draught strength, manure, and fuel as well as for food security and foreign exchange savings. In the haor farms, there are roughly 32.68 million head of animals (cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, chickens, and ducks), of which more than 25% are poultry and ducks. These estimates are from Alam et al. [15] and Aziz et al. [19]. But the primary natural resource-based agricultural systems in arid regions, such as agriculture, fisheries, and the raising of livestock and poultry for food [20], are severely impacted by natural catastrophes brought on by climate change, leading to food insecurity.
Malnutrition, which is extremely common in the haor areas of Bangladesh, is mostly to blame for childhood stunting, which ranges from 46.6% in the haor basin to 30.9% in other parts of Bangladesh. In addition, the haor basin has a 44.5% frequency of underweight people, compared with 34.1% elsewhere [21]. Haor people normally rely on imported vegetables from other districts, whose nutritional value decreases over time and price value increases over distance. The demand for and price of locally produced fresh vegetables are very high, which could be a source of motivation to cultivate vegetables at large scale. But unfortunately, the commercial cultivation of vegetables is rarely seen in haor areas.
There have been some sporadic studies regarding haor cropping systems, but studies of cropping systems in relation to climate change and nutrition are rare. Moreover, nutrition-rich cropping systems are essential to practice for improving the nutritional status of the haor people. Consequently, it is a most important issue to design climate-smart and nutrition-sensitive cropping systems for the haor inhabitants to ensure food security as well as to reduce malnutrition status. Therefore, this research tried to determine the farmers’ understanding about climate change, to explore the existing cropping systems and nutritional status of haor farmers, and to identify haor farmers’ existing and future adaptation actions for the changing climate.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Site
The research area is situated in the Dingaputa haor of the Mohanganj upazila (smaller administrative unit) under the Netrakona District in Bangladesh (Figure 1). The Dingaputa haor receives its water primarily from the Kongso River, with water covering over 8000 hectares of this haor during the rainy season. The Dingaputa haor entirely encompasses two of the seven unions in Mohanganj upazila, Tetulia and Gaglajur, while partially enclosing two other unions, Maghan Siadhar and Suair. The study area encompasses the aforesaid four unions at latitudes of 24°46′23.92″ N to 24°51′28.79″ N and longitudes of 90°44′25.32″ E to 91°06′09.41″ E.
2.2. Methods Used for Data Collection
A thorough assessment of the population under study was used to determine the appropriate sample size. A total of 250 participants made up the sample, which was determined using a random selection process. Skilled professionals were engaged in developing survey questionnaires for conducting the structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) among farmers of the Dingaputa haor area of Bangladesh. In order to understand the SWOT of haor agriculture in the context of climate change and to confirm the information acquired through structured interviews, focus groups were performed. In total, 15 FGDs, each with 12 to 15 farmers, were organized in 10 villages of the study area. The structured interviews were conducted with the local farmers, model farmers, Sub-Assistant Agriculture Officer (SAAO), Agriculture Extension Officer (AEO), Additional Agriculture Officer (AAO), Upazila Agriculture Officer (UAO), scientists from the National Agricultural Research System (NARS), and employees from non-government organizations (NGOs) who were employed in the relevant haor area. The repetitiveness of the data served as the basis for choosing the sample size based on the population of the study area; samples were gathered up until the point where the researcher decided that adding one more unit would not significantly advance knowledge.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The information acquired through participant observations and structured interviews was promptly recorded in the field to highlight the contrasts and similarities. A few concept mind maps were created with the assistance of the acquired context-based field information. The researcher was able to streamline the analytic procedure with the aid of the experiences and insights gleaned from the participants’ observations. To explore the analysis, descriptive statistics were employed. Using the Excel 2007 and SPSS software programs (SPSS version 16.0), the survey data were examined. The feasibility and strategic direction of the present haor agriculture were evaluated using SWOT analysis and matrices.
3. Results
3.1. Demographic and Socioeconomic Information of Farmers
Table 1 shows that the majority of participants (45.6% of all respondents) were in the age range of 41–50 years, followed by 24.4% of respondents in the 31–40-year age range, 14.4% of respondents in the 21–30-year age range, 13.6% of respondents in the >50-year age range, and the fewest respondents (only 6) who were under the age of 20. When comparing the gender of the 250 farmers, the ratio of male (246) to female (4) was 98.4:1.6. Regarding educational qualification, most farmers (36.8%) completed the primary level (1–5 years), while 34.8% of the farmers were illiterate and had no formal education. Only 6.8% of respondents had secondary and higher education (11 years and more), compared with 21.6% of farmers with secondary education. The average farm family (73.2%), as determined by survey results on family size, had 4–6 members, while the next-highest percentage (14.0%) of families had 7–9 members. Farm families with 1–3 individuals accounted for only 8.0% of all farm families, while families with more than 9 members made up the lowest percentage of farm families (4.8%). The findings also showed that the majority of families (52.4%) had 2–4 active family members, while 43.2% had only 1, and a small percentage of all households (4.4%) had more than 4.
3.2. Agricultural Information of Farmers
According to the findings in Table 2, 38.8% of all surveyed farmers were small farmers with 0.2–1.00 ha of land, followed by marginal farmers (34.0%) with 0.02–0.20 ha of land and medium farmers (17.2%) with 1.01–3.00 ha. In contrast, a few of the farmers were in the landless (6.0%), and large farmers (4.0%) categories. Based on land ownership data, the biggest percentage (56.8%) of farmers were landowners, followed by sharecroppers or profit-sharing farmers (21.2%) and integrated farmers (19.6%), who are both landowners and sharecroppers, while leased farmers made up 2.4%. Farming experience was also considered; most of the farmers (54%) had 10–20 years of farming experience, followed by 20.4% with farming experience for 21–30 years. The smallest percentage of farmers (11.6%) were highly experienced, with more than 30 years of farming experience. The majority of the farmers’ responses indicated that their cultivated land types range from medium low (flooded up to 0.91–1.80 m) to medium high (flooded up to 0.10–0.90 m). Interestingly, among the 250 farmers, only 1 respondent’s cultivated land type is high (above the normal flooding level), while the rest of the farmers have crop land under the category of low land (flooded up to 1.81–3.00 m) and very low land (flooded deeper than 3.00 m). Furthermore, most of the farmers (60.4%) reported that their land remains submerged from June to September, while other farmers (27.2%) remarked the period from June to October. Additionally, only 4.8% of farmers mentioned a submerging time of their cultivated land from June to November, compared with 7.6% who mentioned it from May to November.
3.3. Farmers’ Understanding about Climate Change
The farmers (250 respondents) of the study area pointed out “climate change means frequent flooding”. According to the farmers’ understanding of climate change, frequent flooding (73.2%) ranked at the top, followed by frequent storms (63.2%), heavy precipitation (60.8%), excessive heat (59.6%), less precipitation (58.4%), excessive cold (56.4%), irregular weather (55.2%), excessive fog in winter (54%), and irregularity in seasons (53.2%), whereas 14.8% of the farmers reported that they had no knowledge about climate change (Figure 2).
3.4. Changing Trends of Climate
The changing trends of climatic parameters like temperature, rainfall, inundation, and lightning during the last 10 years are presented in Table 3. The majority of the farmers (245 out of 250 farmers), according to the results of the current survey, indicated that temperatures have increased recently, whereas 1.6% the farmers reported a trend of decreasing temperatures. Additionally, the remaining farmers (0.4%) reported that no change has occurred in temperatures over the previous 10 years. Furthermore, the majority of the respondents (62.4%) claimed that the amount of precipitation during the dry season has decreased during the previous 10 years, while 33.2% of farmers disagreed. Among the 250 farmers, 10 responded that they had no knowledge about this matter and only 1 farmer mentioned that rainfall patterns have remained unchanged during the past 10 years. According to 95.2% of respondents, flooding has started to happen earlier, which suggests that early flooding has become more common. When the farmers were asked about changing trends of lightning during the past 10 years, 90.4% of the respondents opined that the frequency of thunderstorms has increased from previous times, while 5.6% of the farmers stated the opposite. Additionally, very few farmers (2.4%) opined that no change has occurred in lightning trends compared with the past, while others (1.6%) had no knowledge about it.
3.5. Natural Hazards/Disasters and Crop Cultivation
The farmers in the haor region are plagued by frequent, recurring disasters such as flash floods, drought, storms, hailstorms, lightning, cold waves, heat waves, and pest attack, from birth to death. Figure 3 shows that flash floods were the disasters most frequently reported, followed by insect assault, cold wave, lightning, hailstorm, drought, storms, and heat wave. Farmers’ thoughts about the changing trend of natural calamities were also considered, and about 95.2% farmers responded positively that natural hazards have occurred more frequently than in previous times. Only 4.8% respondents mentioned that they were unaware of the occurrence of natural hazards/disasters.
3.6. Nutritional Knowledge and Vegetable Consumption Habits of Farmers
The nutritional knowledge and vegetable consumption habits of the farmers are presented in Table 4. About 33.2% of the farmers opined that they had no knowledge regarding the nutritional importance of consuming vegetables. From the farmers’ responses, it was also noted that only 27.2% of respondents provided the appropriate response and that more than 2/3 of the farmers were unable to provide the right opinion. In response to “which disease is caused by deficiency of Vitamin A?”, the majority of the farmers (71.2%) answered correctly, while the remaining respondents (28.8%) either did not know the answer or replied wrongly. In contrast, different results were found in response to “which disease is caused for deficiency of Vitamin C?” Only 26.4% of the farmers replied correctly, while the majority of the respondents (73.6%) either did not know the answer or replied wrongly. The number of vegetables that should be consumed by an adult on a daily basis was also considered. According to the farmers’ responses, only 31.6% of respondents provided the right answer, while the majority (37.6%) were completely ignorant of this topic. Among the 250 farmers, 77 farmers (30.8%) responded wrongly regarding the daily requirement of vegetables for an adult person. Additionally, the daily intake of vegetables was also determined in order to learn more about each respondent’s eating habits. The findings showed that more than half of the respondents (51.6%) consumed less than 50 g of vegetables each day, which is much less than what the human body requires. Only 3 out of the 250 responders, which is highly inadequate, consumed more than 150 g of vegetables every day.
3.7. Haor Farmers’ Existing and Future Adaptation Actions for Changing Climate
Table 5 shows the haor farmers’ existing and future adaptation actions for the changing climate. Among the 250 farmers, only 14.4% stated that most farmers have embraced adaptation techniques for the changing climate, whereas 214 respondents (85.6%) disagreed (Table 5). One of the main reasons behind not employing adaptation tactics was that the majority of them (157 out of 214 respondents) were unaware of the protocols that should be followed. The second most significant problem, according to the farmers, was “lack of understanding about climate change,” with “lack of technological knowledge” emerging in third. In addition, only 10.8% of the surveyed farmers responded that they cultivated other rabi crops like oilseed crops (8 respondents), pulses (6 respondents), spices (5 respondents), vegetables (3 respondents), potatoes (2 respondents), wheat (2 respondents), and other miscellaneous crops (1 respondent), excluding boro rice. In contrast, the majority of farmers (89.2%) opposed growing other rabi crops instead of boro rice, for the following reasons: lack of technological knowledge, lack of capital, inability to make decisions, lack of interest, low land, and severely infertile soil (in descending order).
3.8. SWOT Analysis of Existing Agriculture of Haor Area
Table 6 reveals the SWOT matrix of the existing agriculture in the haor area based on the FGDs to determine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Analysis of the internal environment’s strengths and weaknesses reveals the system’s distinctive capabilities. Environmental and social factors are highlighted in this investigation.
3.8.1. Strength (Internal Strong Points)
In SWOT analysis, internal strong points are known as strengths. Generally, haor is an area growing monocrops such as boro rice (producing around one-fourth of boro rice) that remains surplus in large scale. Additionally, this area remains submerged for six months of the year, resulting in high soil fertility and organic matter content due to siltation and the decomposition of aquatic plants. Haor is a crucial provider of inland freshwater fisheries, acting as a primary supply of protein as well as a secondary source of income during the period of flooding. Haor farmers have more per capita land compared with the farmers in plain terrain, as evidenced by the bigger percentage of middle and large farmers. Locally known as kanda, the comparatively high land in the haor areas offers tremendous potential for crop diversification and intensification. Moreover, due to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters in this area, farmers have become accustomed to enduring them.
3.8.2. Weakness (Internal Weak Points)
Due to the waterlogged conditions, farmers in the haor region are accustomed to farming primarily rice (boro), while other commodities, including oil seeds, pulses, and vegetables, are farmed on a relatively modest scale. The prevalence of malnutrition is higher in the haor area due to the lower cultivation and consumption of vegetables and fruits. Relatively high land in the haor area is locally called kanda, and remains fallow for most of the time. Due to poor communication systems and high transportation costs, farmers continue to receive an unfair price for the crops they produce during regular flooding. Furthermore, the presence of absentee farmers is higher in haor areas, which might be a barrier to the modernization of farming practices. The absence of varied crop growing in the haor region is another factor raising the danger of food insecurity there.
3.8.3. Opportunities (External Strong Points)
Haor areas remain waterlogged for around six months a year due to regular inundation that facilitates siltation and boosts soil fertility. In order to mechanize farming practices and subsequently decrease crop loss and harvesting costs, the government offers subsidies of up to 70% on farm machinery. Numerous government and non-government groups are also active in the haor region, trying to enhance the socioeconomic standing of the local farmers. There are many techniques that may be practiced in haor areas to increase productivity. Hybrid technology for the modernization of agriculture, value addition through the improvement of production and marketing systems, and cultivation of high-value crops before the existing boro all have significant potential for expansion.
3.8.4. Threats (External Weak Points)
Flash floods are a regular and major threat to haor agriculture, followed by cold and heat waves, lightning, hailstorms, erratic weather, and other climate-induced phenomena, the intensity of which is getting stronger day by day. During the peak time for harvesting the boro crop, low migration of workers from remote regions causes a labor shortage, and the lack of surface water for irrigation is getting worse. The inadequacy of agricultural research is attributed to the challenging and expensive nature of doing research in the haor region (mostly due to poor communication). The results of a SWOT analysis point out which system weaknesses should be turned into strengths and which dangers need to be carefully evaluated. Threats that may be anticipated in advance can be transformed into opportunities.
4. Discussion
Even though Bangladesh’s economy is expanding consistently in a modest way, the haor area is still far behind the rest of the country. The government has undertaken several efforts, including the creation of national and regional policies to guide economic growth, and has subsequently created plans over the years to accelerate the development of the nation. Without the growth of the haor area, it is impossible to predict the country’s overall success because it is home to a sizable portion of the people and warrants specific development efforts. The region’s sustainable development is also seriously threatened by the problems posed by climate change and unpredictability. In this connection, we investigated demographic, socioeconomic, and agricultural data; farmers’ knowledge of the climate and its changing trends, major natural hazards, nutrition and dietary habits, and current and future climate adaptation actions; and the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of crop farming based on their knowledge and understanding. In Bangladesh, 0.73% of arable land is disappearing annually because of various development initiatives, especially structural construction, which is extremely worrisome for the nation’s efforts to increase agricultural production [22]. Despite the fact that the country’s land area has been declining over the past three decades, agricultural output is rising dramatically. Crop production across the entire nation could be improved by the sophisticated agricultural development in the haor area, which, additionally, can contribute significantly to achieving countrywide food security. Numerous opportunities and restrictions exist for the haor’s residents due to the physical environment and hydrology of the area.
The survey’s findings on the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the sample indicate that most of those who participated were between the ages of 41 and 50. The farmers within this range are middle aged and are experienced and more acquainted with crop production. The survey profile indicates that farmers of the haor area are not well educated. The literacy rate (38%) of the haor area is lower than the national average (75.6%) [23]. The probable cause might be due to the selection of haor farmers as respondents, having a lower normal literacy rate [2]. Furthermore, a reduced literacy rate might be brought on by the high percentage of primary- and secondary-school dropouts as a result of their dire socioeconomic circumstances. According to survey findings about the distribution of families, most homes had 4–6 individuals and an average family size of 5.0, which is somewhat higher than the average household size (4.2) nationally [23]. Most of the farmers surveyed were the small type, followed by marginal farmers, medium farmers, landless farmers, and large farmers, which corroborates the findings of CEGIS [2]. The predominant methods of land usage and agricultural production determine the tenure structure. The haor region has three different tenure groupings: tenant, owner, and owner-cum-tenant. Either alone or with the assistance of hired labor, landowners cultivate their property. Tenant farmers exclusively work land that belongs to other people, while owners-cum-tenants also work their own property.
It is a lengthy process to discover the direct adverse effects of climate change on the native agricultural crops and cultivation. Longtime record-based data are required to recognize the causal effects of climate change on the haor agricultural crop production in the contexts of Bangladesh. To identify the noticeable effects of climate change on the haor agriculture, the aged farmers’ comments and their understanding were considered. The temperatures have definitely increased in comparison with earlier times. The rainfall has become more inconsistent with previous years. There was a consistency in the rainfall 30–40 years ago; normally it started in April, the highest rainfall occurred in the month of July, and it ended in September. But in recent years, July is almost rainless, and this is due to the effect of climate change. Sometimes unusual rain continues for several days in the month of May during the harvesting of the boro rice, increasing the farmers’ drudgery. In cases of excessive rainfall, sudden floods have hampered crops and farmers’ lives.
It is observed that on average, one fourth of the respondents gave the correct answers to nutritional knowledge-related queries, and around ten percent of respondents mentioned that their daily intake of vegetables is more than 100 g. According to Chakraborty et al. [24], Nath et al. [25], LANSA and BRAC [21], and USAID [26], the important indicators of malnutrition, i.e., underweight, stunting, and wasting of children, are prevalent in the haor area mainly because of low nutritional knowledge and consciousness and less cultivation and a lower consumption of vegetables. The majority of the respondents indicated that the vegetables they consume are imported from other districts, and the price of locally produced vegetables is higher than that of imported vegetables.
A natural catastrophe is the occurrence of an unpredictable or occasional risk that affects defenseless groups such as those in rural locations and causes significant injury, disruption, and likely losses as well as dividing the inflated society that is unable to handle tasks in general. A disaster from a financial perspective comprises a mix of losses in terms of human, material, and financial capital as well as a decline in economic activity [27]. In the haor area, flooding is the most frequently occurring natural hazard. Similar findings to ours, of farmers’ experiences of increased natural hazards in the haor area, were cited by Jakariya and Islam [28] and Rahman et al. [29]. In the pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon, and dry seasons, respectively, the trans-boundary flow from India accounts for 70%, 60%, 37%, and 80% of the total flow. The major reason for the flash floods in the haor area is this influx from Bangladesh, which is mostly a pre-monsoon flow from India. In addition, insect assaults, sporadic cold waves and hailstorms, lightning, drought, extreme heat or cold, and severe precipitation are some unavoidable effects of climate change that endanger the lives of the locals. Furthermore, the majority of the respondents in the studied area also revealed that temperature, the frequency and inundation period of early flash floods, and lightning have increased but the total rainfall in the dry season has decreased during the past 10 years. This result was supported by Jakariya and Islam [28], and they also mentioned on the basis of farmers’ experiences that the normal weather pattern has been changing fast over the last 10 years in the haor area. Fahim and Sikder [30] and Kamruzzaman and Shaw [31] also detected that farmers of the haor area have been experiencing the consequences of frequent climate extremes regularly.
The majority of the cultivable land is low-lying, and the only cropping season, when about 80% of the haor region is covered with boro rice, is rabi (mid-October to mid-March) [32]. Due to flooding, the land is left fallow during Kharif-1 (mid-March to mid-July) and Kharif-2 (mid-July to mid-October) [33]. Therefore, there is not much room for growing crops save boro rice. Sadly, this region also experiences serious climatic dangers, particularly early flash flood episodes [13,28]. The majority of the farmers in this investigation strongly agreed with the statement, “Boro rice of haor area is affected more frequently by these natural hazards/disasters than previous time” which is also supported by Ahmed [34]. Furthermore, the majority of the farmers would not cultivate boro rice earlier, to escape flood and other natural hazards/disasters. If the haor farmers transplant short-duration boro rice before 15th December, rice sterility often occurs. Baishakhy et al. [35] and Rashid and Yasmeen [36] noted that if the mean temperature between mid-February and mid-March remains below 20 °C for more than 5–6 days during the plant’s reproductive stage, spikelet sterility is seen in early-planted boro rice. Nowadays, farmers are more conscious about this problem and most farmers do not transplant boro rice earlier than 15th December, which is reflected in this survey. As a result, maintaining a secure and safe rice production for the locals depends on a safe boro rice harvest. Sadly, the marginal and smallholder farmers in the haor wetlands are more susceptible to crop loss risk and typically have a limited capacity for adaptation [37]. Additionally, they have little access to alternate manufacturing methods [38]. However, the haor region shelters a significant number of fin fish, and Netrakona produces roughly 16.9% of all fish in the haor districts [39]. The most prevalent animal species in this region are ducks and poultry, and Netrakona accounts for about 2.81 m ton of overall duck output, leading poultry (2.32 m ton), cattle (0.60 m ton), goat (0.23 m ton), buffalo (0.1 m ton), and sheep (0.1 m ton) [3]. Floods, however, have a terrible impact on households in all sectors in terms of crops, property, animals, income, jobs, food and water supplies, sanitation, and health [40,41]. Climate change is gravely endangering their farming practices, food availability, and output, raising the possibility of severe food insecurity.
As a result, achieving sustainability in agriculture is difficult in rice-based agricultural regions where crop loss due to flood occurrences is a risk [42]. Because the IPCC states that “adaptation plays a key role in reducing exposure and vulnerability to climate change”, to achieve sustainability in the vulnerable areas, adopting appropriate climate change adaptation strategies is essential during this crisis [37]. Furthermore, poor nations like Bangladesh are frequently more susceptible to the hazards of climate change than industrialized nations, and its catastrophic effects on the food production system are felt most keenly by smallholder farmers [14]. So, in order to ensure that there will be food for future generations, producers must implement proper adaptation techniques. However, most of the farmers have not used adaptation techniques for the changing climate, as they do not know the techniques for adaptation to climate change. Ferdushi et al. [43] mentioned that adaptation capacities depend on local and indigenous knowledge. Only 10.8% of the surveyed farmers cultivated rabi crops other than boro rice; these crops are oilseeds, pulses, spices, vegetables, potatoes, wheat, etc. Ali et al. [44] and Karim et al. [10] noted similar findings of farmers growing some short-duration vegetables and other rabi crops in the side areas of the haor (locally named kanda) or in their homestead areas to ensure a small amount of extra earning and to support the nutritional needs of their families.
It is understood that new climate-resilient varieties of boro rice are becoming widespread over time due to their higher yield. Cultivation of mustard and short-duration vegetables is gaining popularity, even in a small scale, whereas no cultivation of such crops occurred in earlier years. Numerous main causes have been recognized for these kinds of changing agricultural practices in the study area. In this regard, the climate change issue has been acknowledged as the chief factor for changes in agricultural practices in the study area. The entire agricultural system and practices of Bangladesh is being changed due to the climatic unpredictability [45].
The haor region possesses a wealth of natural resources that might be used to improve the economic situation and standard of living of the locals, but the region’s natural environment still poses a challenge to its potential for development. Inadequate up-to-date technology, land left fallow for long periods, low crop diversification, a shortage of surface water for irrigation, and poor communication systems hinder sustainable agricultural production. Furthermore, low production and low consumption of food and vegetables causes malnutrition. Due to their dependence on agricultural operations, which exacerbates their malnutrition issues, the Netrakona families indicated that they struggle to obtain food for over 2.43 months longer each year [46]. Additionally, farmers have to pay more for input selection from the mainland market owing to a difficult communication structure while they receive lower prices for their goods due to high transportation costs. According to Hoq et al. [46], the haor region’s vulnerability may be significantly reduced with access to road and transportation networks. The majority of the connecting roads are drowned during the monsoon, making movement possible only by boat. The lack of mobility hinders efforts to rebuild communities; improve education, health, and sanitation; and support livelihood activities. In order to address structural issues with roads, bridges, and culverts that may lead to waterlogging in nearby farmlands, government development initiatives must be implemented on a priority basis. To raise the standard of living for farmers, protection walls must be built and rivers must be periodically dug up. With assistance from other regional organizations, the Local Government and Engineering Department (LGED), the Road and Highway Division (RHD), and the Water Development Board (WBD) must create a combined work plan. The addition of technology, humanizing extension service connections, early warning systems, and community preparedness plans may help the communities in the haor area to overcome extreme weather events.
5. Conclusions
The haor area has a high potential for agriculture and fisheries but it has some active threats, which are related to climate change. The surveyed farmers’ understanding about climate change was much lower than expected. Farmers have taken very few adaptation strategies, which are less climate-smart and nutrition-sensitive. A lack of technological knowledge is the main obstacle to practicing climate-resilient modern cultivation practices. The cultivation and consumption of vegetables by the haor farmers is very low, although they are agreeable to cultivating nutrition-sensitive and high-value crops if they have technical support. The adoption of short-duration crops like mustard and cultivation of vegetables may be helpful to minimize nutrition-related problems and to cope with climate change issues. To ensure progress and create sustainable agriculture in the future, farmer’s knowledge about climate change and how it distresses agriculture and their lives is vital to comprehend. Climate change is the greatest forthcoming risk to Bangladesh, particularly in the haor area. Thus, to survive its undesirable effects and to generate a sustainable agricultural system for the future, farmers’ knowledge and beliefs must be given high priority. Finally, the local administration, haor-related organizations, and the central government can take a potential role for the overall improvement of the livelihood of the haor people.
Conceptualization: M.M.I., U.K.S., M.R.U., M.U.S. and S.M.; methodology, data collection, and original data analysis: M.M.I., S.A.K. and M.I.A.; data presentation, writing: M.M.I. and M.S.K.; reviewing and editing: U.K.S., M.R.U., M.U.S., H.H., A.H. and E.F.A.; funding acquisition: M.R.U., A.H. and E.F.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Data sets analyzed during the present study are accessible from the current author on reasonable request.
The authors extend their appreciation to BCCT Project number (2018/706-CCTF-MoE), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Bangladesh. The authors also would like to extend their heartfelt gratitude to the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2023R356), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
The authors state no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Location of the study area surrounded by upazila (Source: Shamsur et al., 2017).
Demographic and socioeconomic information of farmers in the study area.
| Subjects | Category | Frequency | Percent | Rank |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age of respondent | <20 years | 6 | 2.4 | 5 |
| 21–30 years | 35 | 14.0 | 3 | |
| 31–40 years | 61 | 24.4 | 2 | |
| 41–50 years | 114 | 45.6 | 1 | |
| >50 years | 34 | 13.6 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Gender of respondent | Female | 4 | 1.6 | 2 |
| Male | 246 | 98.4 | 1 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Educational qualification | No schooling | 87 | 34.8 | 2 |
| Primary (1–5 years) | 92 | 36.8 | 1 | |
| Secondary (6–10 years) | 54 | 21.6 | 3 | |
| Higher secondary and more (11 years and more) | 17 | 6.8 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Family members | 1–3 | 20 | 8.0 | 3 |
| 4–6 | 183 | 73.2 | 1 | |
| 7–9 | 35 | 14.0 | 2 | |
| >9 | 12 | 4.8 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Active family members | 1 | 108 | 43.2 | 2 |
| 2–4 | 131 | 52.4 | 1 | |
| >4 | 11 | 4.4 | 3 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 |
Agricultural information of farmers in the study area.
| Subjects | Category | Frequency | Percent | Rank |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Farmer type | Landless (<0.02 ha) | 15 | 6.0 | 4 |
| Marginal (0.02–0.20 ha) | 85 | 34.0 | 2 | |
| Small (0.21–1.00 ha) | 97 | 38.8 | 1 | |
| Medium (1.01–3.00 ha) | 43 | 17.2 | 3 | |
| Large (>3.00 ha) | 10 | 4.0 | 5 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Land ownership | Owner | 142 | 56.8 | 1 |
| Leasing | 6 | 2.4 | 4 | |
| Sharecropper/profit-sharing | 53 | 21.2 | 2 | |
| Integrated | 49 | 19.6 | 3 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Farming experience | <10 years | 35 | 14.0 | 3 |
| 10–20 years | 135 | 54.0 | 1 | |
| 21–30 years | 51 | 20.4 | 2 | |
| >30 years | 29 | 11.6 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Type of cultivated land | High (above the normal flooding level) | 1 | 0.4 | 5 |
| Medium high (flooded up to 0.10–0.90 m.) | 100 | 40.0 | 2 | |
| Medium low (flooded up to 0.91–1.80 m.) | 131 | 52.4 | 1 | |
| Low (flooded up to 1.81–3.00 m.) | 13 | 5.2 | 3 | |
| Very low (flooded deeper than 3.00 m.) | 5 | 2.0 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Submerging period | May to November | 19 | 7.6 | 3 |
| June to September | 151 | 60.4 | 1 | |
| June to October | 68 | 27.2 | 2 | |
| June to November | 12 | 4.8 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 |
Farmers’ opinion about changing trends of climate.
| Subjects | Respondents’ Opinion | Frequency | Percent | Rank Order |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Changing trend of temperature during past 10 years | Temperature increased | 245 | 98.0 | 1 |
| Temperature decreased | 4 | 1.6 | 2 | |
| No change | 1 | 0.4 | 3 | |
| Don’t know | 0 | 0 | - | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Changing trend of rainfall patterns in dry season during past 10 years | Rainfall increased | 83 | 33.2 | 2 |
| Rainfall decreased | 156 | 62.4 | 1 | |
| No change | 1 | 0.4 | 4 | |
| Don’t know | 10 | 4.0 | 3 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Changing trend of inundation time during past 10 years | Early flood | 238 | 95.2 | 1 |
| Late flood | 12 | 4.8 | 2 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Changing trend of lightning during past 10 years | Thunderstorms increased | 226 | 90.4 | 1 |
| Thunderstorms decreased | 14 | 5.6 | 2 | |
| No change | 6 | 2.4 | 3 | |
| Don’t know | 4 | 1.6 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 |
Nutritional knowledge and vegetable consumption habits of farmers in the study area.
| Subjects | Respondents’ Opinion | Frequency | Percent | Rank Order |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consumption of vegetable is very important for which nutritional element? | Don’t know | 83 | 33.2 | 1 |
| Carbohydrate | 33 | 13.2 | 4 | |
| Protein | 62 | 24.8 | 3 | |
| Fat | 4 | 1.6 | 5 | |
| Vitamins and minerals | 68 | 27.2 | 2 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Which disease is caused for deficiency of Vitamin A? | Don’t know | 55 | 22.0 | 2 |
| Night-blindness | 178 | 71.2 | 1 | |
| Rickets | 2 | 0.8 | 4 | |
| Beriberi | 1 | 0.4 | 5 | |
| Bleeding of teeth | 14 | 5.6 | 3 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Which disease is caused for deficiency of Vitamin C? | Don’t know | 84 | 33.6 | 1 |
| Night-blindness | 29 | 11.6 | 4 | |
| Rickets | 51 | 20.4 | 3 | |
| Beriberi | 20 | 8.0 | 5 | |
| Bleeding of teeth | 66 | 26.4 | 2 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Daily requirement of vegetables for an adult person | Don’t know | 94 | 37.6 | 1 |
| 0–50 g | 17 | 6.8 | 4 | |
| 51–100 g | 51 | 20.4 | 3 | |
| 200–250 g | 79 | 31.6 | 2 | |
| 500 g | 9 | 3.6 | 5 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Daily intake of vegetables by respondents | <50 g | 129 | 51.6 | 1 |
| 50–100 g | 92 | 36.8 | 2 | |
| 101–150 g | 26 | 10.4 | 3 | |
| >150 g | 3 | 1.2 | 4 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 |
Haor farmers’ existing and future adaptation actions for changing climate.
| Subjects | Respondents’ Opinion | Frequency | Percent | Rank Order |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adaptation techniques are taken for changing climate | Yes | 36 | 14.4 | 2 |
| No | 214 | 85.6 | 1 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Reasons behind not taking adaptation techniques for climate change | Lack of technological knowledge | 124 | 3 | |
| Lack of capital | 73 | 4 | ||
| Lack of awareness about climate change | 128 | 2 | ||
| Lack of interest | 12 | 5 | ||
| I don’t know what to do | 157 | 1 | ||
| Total (214) | ||||
| Cultivation of crops other than boro rice in the rabi season | Yes | 27 | 10.8 | 2 |
| No | 223 | 89.2 | 1 | |
| Total | 250 | 100.0 | ||
| Cultivated rabi crops other than boro rice who responded “Yes” | Wheat | 2 | 5 | |
| Potato | 2 | 5 | ||
| Maize | 0 | - | ||
| Vegetables | 3 | 4 | ||
| Pulses | 6 | 2 | ||
| Oilseeds | 8 | 1 | ||
| Spices | 5 | 3 | ||
| Others | 1 | 6 | ||
| Total (27) | ||||
| Mentioned problem/problems who responded “No” | Low land | 8 | 5 | |
| Very low-fertility soil | 5 | 6 | ||
| Lack of technological knowledge | 144 | 1 | ||
| Lack of capital | 128 | 2 | ||
| Lack of interest | 43 | 4 | ||
| I don’t know what to do | 49 | 3 | ||
| Total (223) |
SWOT matrix of existing agriculture of haor areas (on the basis of FGDs).
| Strengths | Weaknesses |
| (i) Fertile soil |
(i) Monocropping |
| Opportunities | Threats |
| (i) Siltation |
(i) Flash flood |
References
1. BHWDB. Master Plan of Haor Area: Volume I Summary Report; Ministry of Water Resources, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.
2. CEGIS. Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services, Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board (BHWDB), Master Plan of Haor Areas, Main Report, Volume II. Ministry of Water Resources; Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.
3. Suvra, K.I.J. Haor Regions-Importance, Problems, Strategy and Future Development. J. Econ. Financ.; 2021; 12, pp. 35-48.
4. Rakib, M.A.; Islam, S.; Nikolas, I.; Bodrud-Doza, M.; Bhuiyan, M.A.H. Flood vulnerability, local perception and gender role judgment using multivariate analysis: A problem-based “participatory action to future skill management” to cope with flood impacts. Weather. Clim. Extrem.; 2017; 18, pp. 29-43. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2017.10.002]
5. Cho, R. How Climate Change Impacts the Economy. Climate, State of the Planet, Earth Institute, Columbia University, 2019. Available online: https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2019/06/20/climate-change-economy-impacts/ (accessed on 5 July 2023).
6. GoB. Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme, Phase II (2010-14); Ministry of Food and Disaster, Government of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2010.
7. World Bank. Turn down the Heat: Climate Extreme Regional Impact and Case for Resilience; A report for the World Bank by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Climate Analytics World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2013.
8. UNDP. Terminal Evaluation: Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management at Cox’s Bazar and Hakaluki Haor; United Nations Development Program: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2012.
9. Kazal, M.M.H.; Rahman, S.; Hossain, M.Z. Poverty Profiles and Coping Strategies of the Haor (Ox-bow lake) Households in Bangladesh. J. Poverty Alleviation Int. Dev.; 2010; 8, pp. 167-191.
10. Karim, M.M.; Bhuiya, M.S.U.; Hossain, S.M.A. Productivity of potato-Boro rice cropping pattern in haor ecosystem. Res. Agric. Livest. Fish.; 2015; 2, pp. 247-251. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/ralf.v2i2.25007]
11. Rabby, T.G.; Alam, G.M.; Mishra, P.K.; Hoque, K.E.; Nair, S. Different economic and policy perspectives in micro population for sustainable development: A study of the haor livelihood in Bangladesh. Afr. J. Bus. Manag.; 2011; 5, pp. 2475-2492.
12. Hansen, J.; Hellin, J.; Rosenstock, T.; Fisher, E.; Cairns, J.; Stirling, C.; Lamanna, C.; van Etten, J.; Rose, A.; Campbell, B. Climate risk management and rural poverty reduction. Agric. Syst.; 2019; 172, pp. 28-46. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.019]
13. Dey, N.C.; Parvez, M.; Islam, M.R. A study on the impact of the 2017 early monsoon flash flood: Potential measures to safeguard livelihoods from extreme climate events in the haor area of Bangladesh. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduc.; 2021; 59, 102247. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102247]
14. Hellin, J.; Balíe, J.; Fisher, E.; Kohli, A.; Connor, M.; Yadav, S.; Kumar, V.; Krupnik, T.J.; Sander, B.O.; Cobb, J. et al. Trans-disciplinary responses to climate change: Lessons from rice-based systems in Asia. Climate; 2020; 8, 35. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cli8020035]
15. Alam, M.S.; Quayum, M.; Islam, M. Crop production in the Haor areas of Bangladesh: Insights from farm level survey. Agriculturists; 2010; 8, pp. 88-97. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/agric.v8i2.7582]
16. Kamruzzaman, M.; Daniell, K.A.; Chowdhury, A.; Crimp, S. Facilitating learning for innovation in a climate-stressed context: Insights from flash flood-affected rice farming in Bangladesh. J. Agric. Educ. Ext.; 2022; 29, pp. 463-487. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2022.2082497]
17. Gebru, G.W.; Ichoku, H.E.; Phil-Eze, P.O. Determinants of livelihood diversification strategies in Eastern Tigray Region of Ethiopia. Agric Food Secur.; 2018; 7, 62. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0214-0]
18. Parvin, M.T.; Akteruzzaman, M. Factors affecting farm and non-farm income of haor inhabitants of Bangladesh. Progress. Agric.; 2012; 23, pp. 143-150. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pa.v23i1-2.16578]
19. Aziz, M.S.B.; Hasan, N.A.; Mondol, M.M.R.; Alam, M.M.; Haque, M.M. Decline in fish species diversity due to climatic and anthropogenic factors in Hakaluki Haor, an ecologically critical wetland in northeast Bangladesh. Heliyon; 2021; 7, e05861. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05861] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33553714]
20. Uddin, M.T.; Hossain, N.; Dhar, A.R. Business prospects and challenges in haor areas of Bangladesh. J. Bangladesh Agric. Univ.; 2019; 17, pp. 65-72. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v17i1.40665]
21. LANSA and BRAC. The Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition in South Asia (LANSA)-an international research partnership of which BRAC is a partner. In Proceedings of the Leveraging Agriculture for Nutrition in Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 23 July 2018. Available online: https://www.brac.net/latest-news/item/1161-malnutrition-higher-in-coastal-and-haor-areas-households-have-16-less-income (accessed on 18 May 2023).
22. Hasan, N.M.; Hossain, M.S.; Islam, M.R.; Bari, M.A. Trend in Availability of Agricultural Land in Bangladesh; National Food Policy Capacity Strengthening Program (NFPCSP): Dhaka, Bangladesh, FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013; pp. 1-72.
23. BBS. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics; Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2022.
24. Chakraborty, B.; Yousefzadeh, S.; Darak, S.; Haisma, H. We struggle with the earth everyday: Parents’ perspectives on the capabilities for healthy child growth in haor region of Bangladesh. BMC Public Health; 2020; 20, 140. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8196-9]
25. Nath, J.C.; Ahmad, I.; Chowdhury, R.S.; Razzak, A.; Hossain, N.; Costa, B.J.; Zaman, W. Assessment of nutritional status and hygiene practices of primary school children at rural areas (haor) in Sylhet. World J. Nutr. Health; 2019; 7, pp. 1-5. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.12691/jnh-7-1-1]
26. USAID. Bangladesh: Nutrition Profile, 2018. Available online: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1864/Bangladesh-Nutrition-Profile-Mar2018-508.pdf) (accessed on 23 June 2023).
27. Benson, C.; Clay, E.J. The Impact of Drought on Sub-Saharan African Economies: A Preliminary Examination; World Bank Technical Paper World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 1998.
28. Jakariya, M.; Islam, M.N. Evaluation of climate change induced vulnerability and adaptation strategies at haor areas in Bangladesh by integrating GIS and DIVA model. Model. Earth Syst. Environ.; 2017; 3, pp. 1303-1321. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0378-9]
29. Rahaman, M.M.; Sajib, K.I.; Alam, I. Impacts of climate change on the livelihoods of the people in Tanguarhaor, Bangladesh. J. Water Res. Eng. Manag.; 2016; 3, pp. 1-9.
30. Fahim, T.C.; Sikder, B.B. Exploring farmers’ perception on climate-induced events and adaptation practices to protect crop production and livestock farming in haor area of Northeastern Bangladesh. Theor. Appl. Climatol.; 2021; 148, pp. 441-454. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03907-3]
31. Kamruzzaman, M.; Shaw, R. Flood and sustainable agriculture in the Haor basin of Bangladesh: A review paper. Univers. J. Agric. Res.; 2018; 6, pp. 40-49. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.13189/ujar.2018.060106]
32. Khan, M.N.H.; Mia, M.; Hossain, R. Impacts of flood on crop production in haor areas of two upazillas in Kishoregonj. Int. J. Environ. Sci Nat.; 2012; 5, pp. 193-198. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jesnr.v5i1.11581]
33. Chowdhury, M.A.H.; Hassan, M.S. Hand Book of Agricultural Technology; Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council: Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2013; 230.
34. Ahmed, A.U. Bangladesh Environmental and Climate Change Assessment. Main Report, Prepared for IFAD’s Country Strategic Opportunities Program 2012–2018. 2012; Available online: https://webapps.ifad.org/members/eb/136/docs/EB-2022-136-R-22.pdf (accessed on 10 July 2023).
35. Baishakhy, S.D.; Islam, M.A.; Amin, M.R.; Choudhury, F.H. Combating flash flood in haor areas: Strategic adaptation towards sustainable crop production. Asian J. Agric. Res.; 2020; 7, pp. 29-37. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.9734/ajahr/2020/v7i130087]
36. Rashid, M.M.; Yasmeen, R. Cold Injury and Flash Flood Damage in Boro Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh: A Review. Bangladesh Rice J.; 2017; 21, pp. 13-25. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3329/brj.v21i1.37360]
37. Pörtner, H.O.; Roberts, D.C.; Adams, H.; Adler, C.; Aldunce, P.; Ali, E.; Begum, R.A.; Betts, R.; Kerr, R.B.; Biesbroek, R. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022; Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ (accessed on 29 May 2023).
38. Fahad, S.; Wang, J. Farmers’ risk perception, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change in rural Pakistan. Land Use Pol.; 2018; 79, pp. 301-309. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.08.018]
39. Poffenberger, M. Communities and Forest Management in South Asia: A Regional Profile of the Working Group on Community Involvement in Forest Management; INCU: Gland, Switzerland, 2000.
40. Cash, R.A.; Halder, S.R.; Husain, M.; Islam, M.S.; Mallick, F.H.; May, M.A.; Rahman, M.; Rahman, M.A. Reducing the health effect of natural hazards in Bangladesh. Lancet; 2015; 382, pp. 2094-2103. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61948-0]
41. Dewan, T.H. Societal impacts and vulnerability to floods in Bangladesh and Nepal. Weather Clim.; 2015; 7, pp. 36-42. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2014.11.001]
42. Tran, D.D.; Huu, L.H.; Hoang, L.P.; Pham, T.D.; Nguyen, A.H. Sustainability of rice-based livelihoods in the upper floodplains of Vietnamese Mekong Delta: Prospects and challenges. Agric. Water Manag.; 2021; 243, 106495. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106495]
43. Ferdushi, K.F.; Ismail, M.T.; Kamil, A.A.B. Perceptions, knowledge and adaptation about climate change: A study on farmers of haor areas after a flash flood in Bangladesh. Climate; 2019; 7, 85. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cli7070085]
44. Ali, S.; Kashem, M.A.; Aziz, M.A. A scenario of agricultural technologies practiced in haor area of Sunamganj district in Bangladesh. Agri. Res. Tech. Open Access J.; 2018; 19, 556087. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.19176.32007/1]
45. Sarker, S.; Hossain, M.S. Climate change disaster and community based mitigation options at Ramgati coast, Bangladesh. Agric. Sci. Res. J.; 2012; 2, pp. 346-354.
46. Hoq, M.S.; Raha, S.K.; Hossain, M.I. Livelihood Vulnerability to Flood Hazard: Understanding from the Flood-prone Haor Ecosystem of Bangladesh. Environ. Manag.; 2021; 67, pp. 532-552. Available online: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-021-01441-6 (accessed on 7 June 2023). [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01441-6] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33609148]
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Details
; Sirajam Monira 1 ; Sinthia Afsana Kheya 1
; Md Salahuddin Kaysar 1
; Ali, Md Imran 2 ; Moin Us Salam 3
; Hwang, Hancheol 4 ; Hashem, Abeer 5 ; Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah 6
; Uddin, Md Romij 1
1 Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh;
2 Jute Research Regional Station, Kishoreganj 2300, Bangladesh;
3 Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh;
4 Department of Bioresources and Rural Systems Engineering, Hankyong National University, Suwon-si 17579, Republic of Korea;
5 Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box. 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
6 Plant Production Department, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box. 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;