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Abstract
Before the nineteenth century, the borderlands between Yunnan and Burma remained a terra incognitato Westerners. Since 1837, diplomats, explorers, officers, spies, missionaries, and agents from Britain, France, the United States, and Germany ventured into this region with various aims. While many studies have been undertaken on the colonial process and imperial rivalry, the abundant records on the contacts with the natives are often neglected, and, to date, there is a dearth of academic research on the history of Chiang Tung (Kengtung), Sipsòng Panna (Xishuangbanna), and Chiang Khaeng. Scrutinizing the archival sources (memoirs, diaries, travelogues, official and private correspondence, reports, orders, notes, testimonies, maps, and photographs) kept in Aix-en-Provence, Atlanta, Beijing, Cambridge, Chiang Mai, London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, and Taipei, together with publications, this dissertation studies the contact between foreigners and natives in the Yunnan-Burma borderlands from 1837 to 1911. This study draws interpretive frameworks from postcolonial studies and textual analysis to approach the history of this region in new ways. It focuses on how travellers dealt with the native population, how they narrate their experiences and present native people, and what roles native people played in Westerners’ travels.
Chapter I studies the British diplomat McLeod’s venture to establish diplomatic relations with and to restore communication between Chiang Mai and Chiang Tung/Sipsòng Panna. Chapter II analyses the French Mekong Exploration Mission’s encounter with and overcoming of natural and human obstacles in their exploration. Chapter III investigates the British and French boundary commissions’ arrival as new overlords, protectors, and mediators, and the redefinition of the territorial boundaries of Chiang Tung, Sipsòng Panna, and Chiang Khaeng. Chapter IV discusses the American Baptist and Presbyterian missionaries’ exploration of ethnic and linguistic boundaries. Chapter V explores the imperial travellers’ and frontier agents’ gaze and item-collecting. This dissertation ends with a comparative study of some common tropes shared by these travellers and investigators.
By combining local sources and the writings of foreign visitors, this dissertation offers a new approach to the understudied history of Chiang Tung, Sipsòng Panna, and Chiang Khaeng. Initially not a destination for the travellers, over the course of time, this region transformed from a backdoor to China to a political, geographical, ethnic, and linguistic space to be clearly defined and delimited. The natives of Chiang Tung, Sipsòng Panna, and Chiang Khaeng participated in these expeditions in various roles, either as objects to be gazed at, subjects to be governed, facilitators (interpreters, escorts, guides, messengers, cooks, coolies, assistants, etc.), or opponents.