1. Introduction
A lack of food security is one of the issues plaguing the world’s rapidly growing human population, and the global prevalence of malnutrition increased dramatically between 2019 and 2020, owing mostly to the COVID-19 pandemic [1]. The population in Egypt is growing fast; the estimated population in 2021 was 109.3 million, with a population change rate of 1.59% [2]. Egypt is primarily a Muslim country; however, it has lately been estimated that approximately 10% of the Egyptian population are Christians [3]. The swine/pigs stock number in the country was estimated as 11,000 head by the year 2021 [4]. Pigs in Egypt are typically reared as backyard animals and fed on human garbage [5,6]. Consequently, it is critical to investigate pigs for parasites that are either of zoonotic or veterinary importance.
With a global distribution, Toxoplasma gondii infects nearly all warm-blooded animals, including humans, livestock, and marine mammals [7,8]. The definitive hosts are felids, which produce and shed environmentally-resistant oocysts [8,9]. Pigs, like humans and other animals, become infected with T. gondii after ingesting sporulated oocysts shed by cats or tissue cysts in the meat of other intermediate hosts [10]. Natural T. gondii infection in pigs is a public health issue, as transmission to humans by consumption of raw or undercooked pork meat or offal can occur [11]. Infections in pigs are usually asymptomatic or with non-pathognomonic symptoms, and severe clinical toxoplasmosis is rare [11]. Human primary infection with T. gondii normally manifests as mild flu-like symptoms in immune-competent hosts; however, it can induce life-threatening infections in immune-compromised persons. Furthermore, T. gondii transplacental transmission during pregnancy might result in significant complications such as abortion, stillbirth, or congenital anomalies [8].
The pooled global T. gondii seroprevalence in pigs (148,092 pigs from 47 countries) was estimated to be 19% based on different serological methods, among which enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were used most frequently [12]. In Egypt, the reported seroprevalence in pigs varies between 14% and 80.4% [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Additionally, viable T. gondii was isolated from the heart of a healthy seropositive pig in Egypt. Many cases of human toxoplasmosis have been reported in Egypt and reviewed previously. The reported seroprevalence of T. gondii in the Egyptian human population ranges from 2.5% to 67.4%, and toxoplasmosis is commonly regarded by Egyptian physicians as a cause of abortions and complications in pregnant women; nonetheless, the published studies are not well-structured, and there is a lack of definitive diagnoses [20,21,22].
Neosporosis is a disease caused by the heteroxenous cyst-forming parasite Neospora caninum, an intracellular apicomplexan protozoan that infects a wide range of domestic and wild animals [23]. The definitive hosts of N. caninum are domestic and wild dogs, coyotes, and grey wolves [24,25]. Cattle are the most common intermediate hosts of N. caninum; however, sheep, water buffaloes, bison, and white-tailed deer have also been identified as intermediate hosts [26]. Abortions and newborn mortality are serious complications of neosporosis in livestock, particularly in cattle [23,24].
Anti-N. caninum antibodies have been reported in domestic and feral pigs from various countries [24], and, more recently, parasite DNA has been detected in the brains of domestic pigs in China [27], indicating natural infection. However, the pathogenesis of neosporosis and its consequences in pigs remains unclear [28,29]. The detection of N. caninum infection in live animals is based mainly on the identification of anti-N. caninum antibodies using a variety of serological tests, the most frequently used of which is ELISA [30,31]. In Egypt, N. caninum infections have been detected in domestic animals such as cattle, buffaloes, and camels, but there have been no reports in pigs.
Trichinella nematodes are zoonotic parasites with a global distribution [32]. Pork is the most common source of human trichinellosis, which can cause clinical symptoms such as myalgia, diarrhea, fever, facial edema, and headaches, and may even be fatal [33]. Trichinella spiralis is the only species reported in Egypt so far [32], and it has been identified in pigs [34,35], rodents [36], and dogs [34,37]. In Egypt, the reported infection rate in slaughtered pigs and pork products ranges from 0% to 6% [19,35,38,39,40,41]. Only one old report on the seroprevalence of Trichinella spp. in pigs in Egypt (35.6%) was found in a literature search, and it used an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) [42]. Nevertheless, ELISA is the recommended assay for epidemiologic serosurveillance of pigs for Trichinella infection [43]. Human trichinellosis linked to the consumption of pork has recently been reported from Egypt based on ELISA, and the seroprevalence rate of T. spiralis (IgG) was 10% (9/90) [35] and 60.9% (56/92) [40] in the examined humans.
Based on the above-mentioned facts, there have been a few reports in Egypt on the prevalence of T. gondii and Trichinella spp. in pigs, but none on N. caninum. We therefore opted to update the information on the seroprevalence of T. gondii and Trichinella spp., as well as to provide baseline data for the seroprevalence of N. caninum infections, in pigs in Egypt. Our presented data will serve the public health and veterinary sectors in minimizing the health and economic hazards of these parasites in Egypt.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Animals and Regions of the Study
Blood samples were collected from male and female pigs (n = 332) during slaughtering in the El-Bassatin abattoir in the Cairo governorate. All pigs were raised in backyard pens containing 50 to 100 pigs in the slums of the Cairo governorate by garbage collectors as one of their main sources of income. These rearing pens and slums lack many procedures ensuring sanitary conditions or biosecurity and pigs are fed mainly on garbage. This condition allows for high rates of contact with free-roaming animals such as dogs, cats, rodents, and birds, increasing the incidence of infection with many biohazardous agents. In addition, other livestock animals, especially sheep, are also reared with these pigs. The majority of pigs are reared for fattening and are slaughtered at the age of 5 months. They are typically sold to pig merchants who collect animals from different small-scale farmers and ship them to the abattoir. Pigs used in this study originated from the following slums: Manshiyat Naser, Cairo’s largest pig farming slum in the western region (30.0362°N, 31.2783°E) (n = 108; female 75, male 33); Ezbet El Nakhl (30.1393°N, 31.3244°E) (n = 184; female 125, male 59) in the eastern Cairo region; and 15 May city (29.8579°N, 31.3885°E) (n = 40; all of them male) in the southern Cairo region (Figure 1). The pigs from various herds were held together in abattoir pens before slaughtering without identification.
Blood was collected in plain tubes without anticoagulants directly from the slaughtered animals during bleeding according to the El-Bassatin abattoir regulations for pig slaughtering and pork processing. All samples were labeled and transferred on ice to the Reference Laboratory at the Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Giza. Upon arrival at the laboratory, blood samples were kept overnight for serum separation and then centrifuged at 900× g for 10 min. Serum samples were aliquoted and kept at −20 °C until testing. Aliquots from these samples were sent on ice to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, for ELISA testing.
2.2. ELISAs for Screening Antibodies to T. gondii, N. caninum, and Trichinella Species in Pigs
Regarding T. gondii, the serum samples were tested using an indirect multi-species ELISA for toxoplasmosis (ID.vet, Grabels, France) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Serum samples and controls were diluted 1:10. The optical density (OD) obtained was used to determine the percentage of sample (S) to positive (P) ratio (S/P %) for each of the test samples using the following formula: S/P (%) = (OD sample – OD negative control)/(OD positive control − OD negative control) × 100. Samples with an S/P% less than 40% were regarded as negative, an S/P% between 40% and 50% was regarded as doubtful, and the test was considered positive if the S/P% was more than 50%.
For N. caninum, serum samples were analyzed using a competitive multi-species ELISA for neosporosis (ID.vet, Grabels, France). Serum samples and controls were diluted 1:2. The ODs obtained were used to calculate the percentage of sample (S) to negative (N) ratio (S/N%) for each of the test samples according to the following formula S/N (%) = OD sample/OD negative control × 100. Samples with an S/N% more than 60% were regarded as negative, an S/N% between 50% and 60% was regarded as doubtful, and the test was considered positive if the S/N% was less than 50%.
Serum samples were analyzed for Trichinella species using an indirect multi-species ELISA for trichinellosis (ID.vet, Grabels, France). Serum samples and controls were diluted 1:20. The ODs obtained were used to determine the percentage of sample (S) to positive (P) ratio (S/P %) for each of the test samples using the following formula: S/P (%) = (OD sample − OD negative control)/(OD positive control − OD negative control) × 100. Samples with an S/P% less than 50% were regarded as negative, an S/P% between 50% and 60% was regarded as doubtful, and the test was considered positive if the S/P% was greater than or equal to 60%.
The ODs of all ELISA results were read at 450 nm using an Infinite® F50/Robotic ELISA reader (Tecan Group Ltd., Männedorf, Switzerland). See Table 1 for additional information on the ELISAs used in this study.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The significance of the differences in the prevalence rates and risk factors were analyzed using Fisher’s exact test, 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) (including a continuity correction), and odds ratios (OR) using an online statistical website
3. Results
The overall seroprevalence in the studied pigs for T. gondii was 45.8% (152/332; 95% CI: 40.4–51.3), N. caninum was 28.0% (93/332; 95% CI: 23.3–33.2), and Trichinella spp. was 1.2% (4/332; 95% CI: 0.4–3.3). Mixed infections were only detected for T. gondii and N. caninum at 18.7% (62/332; 95% CI: 14.7–23.4) (Table 2).
Risk factor analysis was conducted to assess the influence of sex and breeding location on the seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum, but not for Trichinella because of the limited number of seropositive samples. Breeding site was identified as the only predisposing factor for T. gondii infection. The seroprevalence of T. gondii in pigs reared in 15 May city, southern Cairo (67.5%) set as the reference group was higher than that in Ezbet El Nakhl, eastern Cairo (35.3%) (OR = 3.8, p = 0.0003), but not significantly higher than in Manshiyat Naser, western Cairo (55.6%) (OR = 0.6, p = 0.259). On the other hand, sex had no influence on the T. gondii seroprevalence (Table 3).
For N. caninum antibody levels, both sex and breeding site were considered risk factors. The seropositive rate was significantly higher in female pigs (38%) set as a reference than in male pigs (12.9%, OR = 4.1, p ≤ 0.0001). Also, the seroprevalence of N. caninum in pigs located in Ezbet El Nakhl (13%) set as the reference group was significantly lower than that recorded in Manshiyat Naser (53.7%, OR = 7.7, p ≤ 0.0001) and 15 May city (27.5%, OR = 2.5, p ≤ 0.031) (Table 4).
4. Discussion
Despite the presence of a considerable pig population and pig consumers in Egypt, there has been relatively little effort to conduct parasite epidemiological studies. Herein, we targeted pigs as sentinel animals for infection with three parasites: T. gondii, N. caninum, and Trichinella species. All animals were admitted to El-Bassatin abattoir, Cairo, the only licensed place for pig slaughtering in Egypt. The highest seroprevalence was recorded for T. gondii (45.8%), followed by N. caninum (28.0%) and T. gondii and N. caninum co-infection (18.7%), and the lowest was for Trichinella spp. (1.2%).
A variety of techniques and antigens are available for the detection of distinct immunoglobulin isotypes against T. gondii [46,47], among which ELISA has been the most frequently used method in the past century [48]. In Egypt, few serological studies have been published for T. gondii infections in pigs, and prevalence rates between 14% and 80.4% have been reported [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. These studies were conducted over a large time span (1972–2015), and a multitude of test types were used, such as indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) [13,16], indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) [19,20], dye test (DT) [14], modified agglutination test (MAT) [15], and ELISA [17,18]. In the present study, we opted for commercially available ELISAs, which have the advantage of good repeatability, robustness, and reportedly very good sensitivity and specificity. The detected seroprevalence of 45.8% for T. gondii in the assessed backyard pigs indicates a potential risk to the health of pig fatteners, abattoir workers, and consumers. A similar finding was published by Barakat et al. [16], who reported a seroprevalence for T. gondii of 74.7% in pigs reared entirely on waste feed in Cairo, and a seroprevalence of 37.7% (48 of 127) in the workers at these pig farms.
Neospora caninum infection in Egyptian animals is underestimated, with a few seroprevalence reports in cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, camels, dogs, and cats, as well as limited information on clinical neosporosis. In our previous reports using the same ELISA as in the current study, we demonstrated seroprevalence rates for N. caninum of 3.9% in camels [44], 15.5% and 5% in sheep and goats, respectively [45], 5.8% in dogs, 3.4% in cats [49], and 24.6% in cattle [50]. Nonetheless, serum samples from aborted cows revealed N. caninum infections in addition to Coxiella burnetii [51] or Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus [52]. Furthermore, the number of N. caninum seropositive camels increased among females with an abortion history [53]. On the other hand, the pathogenesis of neosporosis and its consequences in pigs remains unclear [28,29]. Neospora caninum experimental infection in pigs can be transferred through the placenta and produce reproductive problems such as mummified fetuses, particularly in the first and second gestational thirds [28].
To the best of our knowledge, the current study is the first serological study of N. caninum infection in pigs in Egypt. Thus, we compared our recorded prevalence (28%) with the rates in other animals in different regions of Egypt. Although N. caninum might not be a serious parasite for the pig industry, its detection in pigs might constitute a major risk for ruminants and other animals because of multiple species being raised in the same place. The seroprevalence in pigs was most similar to rates reported in cattle (24.6% [50], 29% [51], and 30.2% [52]) and higher than the rates reported in all other animal species, with the exception of one study in buffaloes (Table 5). Furthermore, in comparison with the seroprevalence rate of N. caninum in domestic pigs from other countries, our infection rate seemed higher. For example, a rate of 3% was reported in the Czech Republic [54]; 1.9% in Hunan province, China [27]; 5.2% in Brazil [55]; and 6.7% in Italy [56] for N. caninum infections in pigs. Only one study found a higher seroprevalence rate (36.4%) in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, China [57].
Overall, these findings can best be explained by the sanitary conditions in which the pigs were raised. They were garbage-fed backyard pigs and fattened as an additional income by inhabitants of the slums of Cairo. Both parasites can be transmitted through the feeding of uncooked infected meat from other species or via oocysts shed by cats for T. gondii or by dogs for N. caninum [8,23]. Slums typically harbor a large population of stray cats, dogs, and other animals that may serve as sources of infection for the pigs.
Little is known about the oocyst-shedding rates of cats and dogs in Egypt. The presence of T. gondii-like oocysts in the feces of cats in Egypt may have been overestimated, where 1432 cats were examined, revealing a pooled prevalence of 11.9% [64]. Neospora caninum-like oocysts were found in the feces of one of 78 dogs tested in a single study (Dakahlia governorate), and it is conceivable that certain small-sized oocysts detected in prior studies from Egypt are N. caninum [65]. Furthermore, N. caninum-like oocysts were found in the feces of five of nine puppies fed the placentas and brains of nine aborted bovine fetuses in Egypt [66].
In this study, we analyzed the effects of sex and breeding locations on the seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum infection. The breeding location was identified as a risk factor for T. gondii where 15 May city had a significantly higher seroprevalence than the two other places. For N. caninum, both sex and location significantly affected the prevalence rate; females had a higher rate than males, and meanwhile, 15 May and Manshiyat Naser had higher rates than Ezbet El Nakhl. Notably, 15 May city recorded the highest prevalence for both T. gondii and N. caninum. This might be related to the more recent establishment of 15 May city, which has a larger desert area compared to the other two locations, and thus a higher chance of the presence of wild canines and felines. Another reason might be its distant location from the crowded areas of Cairo, which rendered it a main place for garbage collection. However, because this is the first study that investigated such factors in Egypt, other investigations are required to confirm these results and reveal the cause of variations. Meanwhile, numerous studies have found that location is a risk factor for the seroprevalence of T. gondii in pigs or other animals [21]. Concerning N. caninum in pigs, the available data are very scanty, both in Egypt and globally. Nevertheless, the location is considered a potential risk factor for N. caninum in other animal species [45,50,67,68]. Similarly, and taking into account the limited data concerning pigs, sex is regarded as a risk factor for T. gondii and N. caninum in cases of other animal species [50,69]. Age is usually also a risk factor for seropositivity to T. gondii or N. caninum, but this could not be assessed in our study, as all pigs were slaughtered at approx. 5 months old.
Trichinella spp. transmission primarily occurs in poor areas where veterinary services are unavailable, as well as in traditional small-scale “backyard” rearing of pigs for household and local use, particularly by the feeding of food waste [70,71]. Trichinella infection in pigs can be prevented through management practices such as grain feeding or cooking the feed garbage, indoor production, and removing rat carcasses from the premises [72,73,74,75].
In Egypt, larvae of Trichinella spp. have infrequently been found by trichinoscopy and/or digestion methods (Table 6). Interestingly, data on 33,812 slaughtered pigs were collected through a standard form from the El-Bassatin abattoir archives during one year of screening, and 359 (1.06%) were found to be infected [35]. However, Mohammed et al. [35] additionally tested a subsample of pigs with the digestion method and found a higher prevalence of 3.3%. Using artificial digestion, a prevalence rate of 13.3% was determined in rodents from Alexandria, and high infection rates were identified in rodents taken from and surrounding abattoirs [36]. Based on the isoenzyme electrophoretic patterns, Trichinella spiralis was identified in two stray dogs [37], two isolates from domestic pigs, and one isolate from a domestic dog from Egypt [34], and by PCR in domestic pigs [35]. Furthermore, human trichinellosis linked to the consumption of pork has been reported in Egypt [35,40,76,77,78].
Although current serodiagnostic approaches cannot replace traditional meat inspection for this zoonotic nematode, ELISA can be useful for surveillance programs and generally has an increased sensitivity compared to direct detection of larvae [79]. ELISA testing of 14,579 sera from pigs in 21 studies indicated an overall prevalence of 4.3% worldwide [75]. The seroprevalence rate obtained for Trichinella infection in pigs in our study was quite low (1.2%) and very similar to the infection rates determined by trichinoscopy at slaughter. Experimental studies have shown that Trichinella species have a different larval burden and immunological response in pigs at 30–70 days post-infection that can last up to 40 weeks [80,81,82,83]. Thus, the low seroprevalence of Trichinella spp. might be related to the younger age of tested pigs that are slaughtered at an age of 5 months. Likewise, the seroprevalence of Trichinella spp. in Vietnam increased with the pigs’ age: it was 1.1%, 1.2%, 32.9%, and 55.6% for pigs < 2 months, 2–8 months, 9–36 months, and >36 months, respectively [84]. Larger studies including different age groups and combining serological and direct methods should be envisaged to determine the infection rate in Egyptian pigs.
In conclusion, this study revealed variable seropositive rates against all tested parasites in pigs from Cairo, Egypt. Seropositivity was highest in T. gondii (45.8%) followed by N. caninum (28%) and Trichinella spp. (1.2%). Likewise, a high rate of mixed infections (18.7%) was noticed for T. gondii and N. caninum. Location was reported as a risk factor for seropositivity for T. gondii, while location and sex significantly affected N. caninum seropositivity in pigs. Future studies, including larger sample sizes and more diverse regions of Egypt, are required to highlight the national prevalence of these parasites and determine their potential public health risk. Furthermore, using molecular methods for genotyping and species identification of T. gondii and Trichinella spp., respectively, is critical to evaluate pigs’ role in the transmission of these parasites to humans in Egypt.
Conceptualization and design, R.M.F. and C.F.F.; experiments, formal analysis, and investigation, R.M.F., E.-S.E.-A., H.H.A., N.H.A.-H., A.M.M., A.M.S.M., M.A.K., M.E.-D., B.S.A. and C.F.F.; resources and shared materials, R.M.F., E.-S.E.-A., H.H.A., N.H.A.-H., A.M.M., A.M.S.M., M.A.K., M.E.-D., B.S.A. and C.F.F.; writing—original draft, R.M.F., E.-S.E.-A. and C.F.F.; writing—review and editing, R.M.F. and C.F.F. Project administration and funding acquisition; R.M.F. and C.F.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed. This study was approved by the Mansoura University Animal Care and Use Committee (MU-ACUC), approval code number: VM.R.23.07.116.
Verbal consent was obtained from animal owners before collection of samples after full explanation of the purposes of the study.
All data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published article. The raw data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request.
We thank all veterinarians who helped with collecting blood samples from the tested animals and the animal owners for their cooperation in providing animals and the required data and information for each animal. We would like to express our appreciation of the great help, cooperation, and technical assistance of our colleagues at the Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Geographical locations of sample origins. Serum samples were collected from pigs during slaughtering in the El-Bassatin abattoir, Cairo. These animals originated from three main slums of pig raising in three parts of Cairo, the capital governorate of Egypt: Ezbet El Nakhl (eastern Cairo), Manshiyat Naser (western Cairo), and 15 May city (southern Cairo).
Commercially available ELISA test kits used for detecting antibodies against T. gondii, N. caninum, and Trichinella species #.
| Infectious Agent | ELISA Test Kit $ | Antigen | Serum Dilution | Conjugate | Sensitivity * | Specificity * |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Toxoplasma gondii | ID Screen® Toxoplasmosis Indirect Multispecies | P30 antigen | 1:10 | Anti-multi-species IgG-HRP | 98.36% (95% CI: 95.29–99.44) | 99.42% (95% CI: 98.8–100) |
| Neospora caninum | ID Screen® Neospora caninum competition Multispecies | Purified extract of Neospora caninum | 1:2 | Anti-N. caninum-HRP |
100% (95% CI: 98.8–100) | 100% (95% CI: 99.63–100) |
| Trichinella species | ID Screen® Trichinella Indirect Multispecies | Trichinella E/S antigen | 1:20 | Anti-multi-species-HRP (detects IgG or IgM) | 90.7% (95% CI: 89.1–92.4) | 100% (95% CI: 98.95–100) |
$ All ELISA kits were manufactured by ID.vet Innovative Diagnostics, Grabels, France. * The sensitivity and specificity of the diagnostic kits were provided by the manufacturer of the kits. # detects antibodies to T. spiralis, T. pseudospiralis, T. britovi and T. nativa.
Seroprevalence of T. gondii, N. caninum, Trichinella spp. and mixed infections in pigs from Egypt.
| Type of Infection | No. Tested | No. Negative (%) | No. Doubtful (%) | No. Positive (%) | 95% CI * |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T. gondii | 332 | 152 (45.8) | 28 (8.4) | 152 (45.8) | 40.4–51.3 |
| N. caninum | 332 | 217 (65.4) | 22 (6.6) | 93 (28.0) | 23.3–33.2 |
| Trichinella spp. | 332 | 327 (98.5) | 1 (0.3) | 4 (1.2) | 0.4–3.3 |
| T. gondii + N. caninum | 332 | 251 (75.6) | 19 (5.7) | 62 (18.7) | 14.7–23.4 |
* 95% CI calculated according to the method described by
Risk factors for T. gondii antibodies in pigs, Cairo, Egypt.
| Analyzed Factor | No. Tested | No. Negative (%) | No. Positive (%) | OR (95% CI) * | p-Value # |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | |||||
| Female | 200 | 105 (52.5) | 95 (47.5) | Ref. | Ref. |
| Male | 132 | 75 (56.8) | 57 (43.2) | 0.8 (0.5–1.3) | 0.499 |
| Breeding place | |||||
| Ezbet El Nakhl | 184 | 119 (64.7) | 65 (35.3) | 3.8 (1.8–7.9) | 0.0003 |
| Manshiyat Naser | 108 | 48 (44.4) | 60 (55.6) | 0.6 (0.3–1.3) | 0.259 |
| 15 May city | 40 | 13 (32.5) | 27 (67.5) | Ref. | Ref. |
* Odds ratio and 95% confidence interval calculated by
Risk factors for N. caninum antibodies in pigs, Cairo, Egypt.
| Analyzed Factor | No. of Tested | No. of Negative (%) | No. of Positive (%) | OR (95% CI) * | p-Value # |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | |||||
| Female | 200 | 124 (62) | 76 (38) | Ref | Ref |
| Male | 132 | 115 (87.1) | 17 (12.9) | 4.1 (2.3–7.4) | <0.0001 |
| Breeding place | |||||
| Ezbet El Nakhl | 184 | 160 (87) | 24 (13) | Ref. | Ref. |
| Manshiyat Naser | 108 | 50 (46.3) | 58 (53.7) | 7.7 (4.4–13.7) | <0.0001 |
| 15 May city | 40 | 29 (72.5) | 11 (27.5) | 2.5 (1.1–5.7) | 0.031 |
* Odds ratio and 95% confidence interval calculated by
Seroprevalence of N. caninum antibodies in animals in Egypt.
| Animals | Location | Study Year | No. Tested | No. Positive (%) | Diagnostic Method | History | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Buffaloes | Cairo slaughterhouse | 1995 | 75 | 51 (68) | NAT | NS | [ |
| Camels | Cairo slaughterhouse | 1995 | 161 | 6 (3.7) | NAT | NS | [ |
| Cattle | Sharkia | NS | 93 | 19 (20.43) | ELISA | NS | [ |
| Cattle | Qena and Sohag | 2014–2015 | 301 | 57 (18.9) | ELISA | NS | [ |
| Cattle | Fayoum, Giza, Beni-Swief, and Menia | 2017 | 100 | 29 (29) 1 | ELISA | Infertility and abortion | [ |
| Camels | Red Sea, Qalyubia, Kafr, and El Sheikh | 2018–2019 | 282 | 31 (11) | ELISA | 150 camels had a history of abortion | [ |
| Cattle | Menoufia | 2017–2018 | 262 | 32 (12.21) 1 |
ELISA | NS | [ |
| Buffaloes | 244 | 17 (6.97) 1 |
|||||
| Sheep | Alexandria, Gharbia, Menofia, and Qalyubia | 2017–2018 | 430 | 37 (8.6) | ELISA | NS | [ |
| Cattle | Giza, El Fayoum, and Beni Suef | 116 | 35 (30.17) | ELISA | Aborted bovine fetuses | [ |
|
| Camels | Aswan | 2018–2021 | 460 | 18 (3.9) | ELISA | NS | [ |
| Sheep and Goats | Dakahlia, Beni Suef, Qena, and Red Sea | 2016–2021 | 239 |
37 (15.5) |
ELISA | NS | [ |
| Dogs and Cats | Variable | 2019–2022 | 172 |
10 (5.8) |
ELISA | - | [ |
| Cattle | Beheira | 358 | 88 (24.6) | ELISA | NS | [ |
1 IgM-ELISA positive, 2 IgG-ELISA positive, 3 mixed IgM, IgG-ELISA positive. Abbreviations: ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; NAT, neospora agglutination test; NS, not stated.
Prevalence of Trichinella sp. larvae in pigs in Egypt.
| Sample Types | Governorates | Study Year | No. Tested | No. Positive (%) | Diagnostic Methods | Species | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pork sausage | Alexandria | NS | 100 | 6 (6) |
Trichinoscope |
T. spiralis | [ |
| abattoir meat | Assiut and Sohag | 2006–2007 | 150 | 6 (4) |
Trichinoscope |
T. spiralis | [ |
| abattoir meat | El-Minia | 2014–2015 | 100 | 0 | Muscle squash and digestion methods | - | [ |
| abattoir meat | Cairo | 2018–2019 | 184 | 2 (1.08) | Trichinoscopic and histopathological examination | T. spiralis | [ |
| abattoir inspection | Cairo | 2020 | 33,812 * | 359 (1.06) | Trichinoscopic examination | Trichinella sp. | [ |
| abattoir meat | Cairo | 2020 | 170 | 6 (3.35) |
Digestion methods |
T. spiralis # | [ |
* Data were collected through a standard form from the Al-Basateen abattoir archives. # Trichinella spiralis was identified based on PCR of the GAPDH gene.
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; El-Alfy, El-Sayed 2
; Abdelbaky, Hanan H 3 ; Abdel-Hamid, Nour H 4 ; Mazeed, Amira M 5 ; Menshawy, Ahmed M S 6 ; Kelany, Mohamed A 7
; El-Diasty, Mohamed 8 ; Alawfi, Bader S 9 ; Frey, Caroline F 10
1 Division of Internal Medicine, Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, South Valley University, Qena 83523, Egypt
2 Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt;
3 Doctor of Veterinary Sciences, Veterinary Clinic, Veterinary Directorate, Qena 83523, Egypt;
4 Brucellosis Research Department, Agricultural Research Center, Animal Health Research Institute, Cairo 12618, Egypt;
5 Department of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Arish University, Arish City 45511, North Sinai, Egypt;
6 Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 62511, Egypt;
7 Department of Microbiology, The Central Laboratory of Residual Analysis of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Foods, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt;
8 Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Animal Health Research Institute-Mansoura Provincial Lab. (AHRI-Mansoura), Giza 12618, Egypt;
9 Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taibah University, Madinah 42353, Saudi Arabia;
10 Institute of Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland