1. Introduction
Recently, not only increasing pollution caused by industrial development but also lifestyle, eating and exercising habits, workload, and less relaxing life conditions have been impacting human health in various ways [1], leading to increased stress and the overproduction of free radicals. Unbalanced free radicles produced in the body as a result of stress, anabolism, and catabolism cause macromolecular changes in proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and DNA, increasing the risk of non-communicable diseases and conditions such as stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancer [2]. Therefore, maintaining balanced food compositions with high levels of antioxidants is beneficial for general wellness. Thai curries and related products, such as fried curry dumplings, steamed buns, and instant stir-fried curries, are an integral part of the historical, cultural, and ethnic background of local Thais and those who have Chinese, Indonesian, and Indian descent. Historically, Thais have used herbs and spices and even curry paste containing galangal rhizomes, chili pods, garlic bulbs, peppers, shallots, and coriander seeds, with health benefits linked to their anti-aging, anti-inflammation, anti-cancer, and antioxidation properties [3,4,5], to treat or relieve common complaints such as stomachache, flu, and acne, following ancestral traditions [6]. Scientific data have shown that phenolic compounds, especially ferulic acid and flavonoids, are antioxidant agents [7,8] that inhibit reactive oxygen species (ROS) and related molecules such as nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthase, and xanthine oxidase, as well as toxic agents produced from free radicals [9]. Allicin derived from crushed or damaged garlic has anti-cancer properties [10], while eugenol plays a key role in antioxidant and antimicrobial activity [11], and the procyanidin oligomer obtained from cinnamon exhibits anti-diabetes properties [12].
Thailand, known as “The Land of Smiles”, is globally renowned for its mouth-watering culinary dishes [6], with Massaman curry regularly recognized as one of the most delicious dishes in the world [13]. Massaman curry combines the sweetness, saltiness, and creaminess of coconut milk with the slight sourness of roasted groundnuts and the distinctive aroma of more than 15 types of herbs and spices such as shallot, dried finger chili, galangal, cumin, lemongrass, clove, kefir lime fruit, cinnamon bark, coriander root, cardamom, and the turmeric rhizome. Massaman curry paste is claimed to be the richest combination of raw materials [14]. Four large Thai companies (Mae-Ploy, Namjai, Aroy-D, and Maesri) produce and export seasoning and famous recipe blends such as green curry, red curry, Tom-Yum, Pad-Thai, and Massaman. Thailand is the second largest global curry paste exporter, following India [15].
Spicy basil or Pad-ka-proa is consumed throughout the country by both Thais and tourists. This dish can be cooked quickly, within 5 min, and is combined with various hot spices to suit people of all ages, from children to adults. The taste is mildly salty, sweet, and hot, with the aromas of garlic, pepper, and, particularly, holy basil leaves, which are also used for the treatment of various conditions in Ayurveda medicine due to their biological anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-enteritic activities that ward off the symptoms of malaria and ameliorate heart disease [16]. Basil is called the “Mother Medicine of Nature” or “The Queen of Herbs” [17]. The main phytochemicals contained in basil leaves are phenolic acids, flavonoids, propenyl phenol, and terpenoids, particularly, ursolic acid, which is often used as a biomarker [18]. Ursolic acid exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-carcinogenic effects [19].
While there are interesting and convincing studies promoting the consumption of plant materials to enhance human health through the bioactive compounds they contain, a systemic database of the bioactive molecules in Massaman and Pad-ka-proa has not been reported. Therefore, this research aimed to identify and characterize the phenolic compounds contained in Massaman and Pad-ka-proa by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS. These results will be useful for the functional food industry, medicinal applications, and health-conscious customers.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Reagents
Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent for total phenolic content (TPC) was purchased from Loba Chemie Pvt.Ltd., Mumbai, India.
2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine (TPTZ) for FRAP and a fluorescein solution for ORAC were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Darmstadt, Germany.
Trolox (standard for TPC, DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC) and rutin (standard for TFC) were high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC-grade and purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Darmstadt, Germany.
2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride or AAPH used in ORAC were purchased from FUJIFILM Wako Pure Chemical Corporation, Miyazaki, Japan.
Methanol, acetonitrile, and acetic acid were HPLC-grade and purchased from RCI Labscan, Bangkok, Thailand.
2.2. Preparation of Curry Powders
Massaman curry and spicy basil leaf curry were made by mixing the ingredients listed in Table 1. All ingredients were purchased from a local market in Hat Yai, Songkhla province, Thailand.
After grading and washing with a 100 ppm chlorine solution at a ratio of 1:3 (ingredient: solution) for 15 min, the fresh raw materials were rinsed with tap water 2 times to remove excess chlorine residue to lower than 1 ppm. The cleaned ingredients of each curry recipe were blended to a paste before drying using a drum dryer (DD-D12L16, Chareontut, Samutprakarn, Thailand) at 110–120 °C for 2–3 min to obtain dried curry powder with a moisture content of 4–6%. The spicy basil leaf curry was dried in a rotary hot air oven (HS-169, AT Packing, Nonthaburi, Thailand) at 70 °C for 16–18 h to obtain a moisture content of 4–6%. Each dried sample was ground with a high-speed mixer (WF-20B, Thaigrinder, Thailand) until the powder size was lower than 60 mesh (250 µm) (Laboratory test sieve, Endecotts, UK). Flow charts showing an overview of making the Massaman and spicy basil leaf curry powders are presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively.
2.3. Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity
2.3.1. Sample Preparation and Extraction
Each curry powder sample was extracted following the method described by Srisook et al. [20] with some modifications, including using 80% ethanol and 24 h instead of 95% and 5 days. All powders from each curry sample were extracted with 80% ethanol at a ratio of 1:10 (curry powder: 80% ethanol) and stirred in the dark at 25 °C for 24 h. The mixtures were then separated by vacuum suction using a Buchner funnel before centrifugation (CR22GIII, Hitachi, Japan) at 4 °C for 20 min at 7100× g. The ethanol was completely removed using an evaporator (N-1000, EYELA, Rikakikai, Japan) before freeze-drying (KD-330cr, I.T.C., Bangkok, Thailand) at −25 °C until reaching a moisture content of 6–8%.
2.3.2. Total Phenolic Content (TPC) Determination
(TPC) was determined using the method described by Singleton and Rossi [21] with some modifications, including using a well plate instead of a test tube. Briefly, 20 µL of the sample extract was added to a 96-well plate, followed by 100 µL of 10% Folin reagent (v/v). After incubation in the dark at 30 °C for 6 min, 7.5% Na2CO3 (anhydrous) (w/v) was added, and the mixture was incubated for another 30 min. The absorbance was measured at 765 nm using a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore, Singapore). TPC was measured using gallic acid as the standard agent at concentrations of 0–100 µg/mL with R2 = 0.999. The standard curve is shown in Figure S1.
2.3.3. Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) Determination
(TFC) was determined using the method described by Chandra et al. [22] with some modifications, including using a well plate instead of a test tube. Briefly, 100 µL of the sample extract was mixed with 100 µL of 2% AlCl3·6H2O (w/v) and incubated in the dark at 30 °C for 60 min. The absorbance of the mixture was then measured at 420 nm by a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore) using rutin as the standard agent at concentrations of 0–80 µg/mL with R2 = 0.998. The standard curve is shown in Figure S2.
2.3.4. DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity was determined following the method of Ding et al. [23]. First, 100 µL of the sample extract was mixed with 100 µL of 0.2 mM DPPH in 95% ethanol. The mixture was then incubated in the dark for 30 min at 30 °C. Finally, the absorbance was measured at 517 nm by a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore, Singapore) using Trolox as the standard agent at concentrations of 0–12 µg/mL with R2 = 0.998. The standard curve is shown in Figure S3.
2.3.5. ABTS Radical Scavenging Activity
The 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) assay was determined as described by Arnao et al. [24]. The ABTS radical was generated by incubating 7.4 mM ABTS solution in the dark at 30 °C for 12 h. The radical solution was then diluted to obtain an absorbance of 1.1 ± 0.02 at 734 nm. Then, 20 µL of the sample extract was mixed with 280 µL of the radical solution and kept in the dark for 2 h at 30 °C. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at 734 nm by a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore) using Trolox as the standard agent at concentrations of 0–110 µg/mL with R2 = 0.999. The standard curve is shown in Figure S4.
2.3.6. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay
The ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay was determined following the method of Benzie and Strain [25]. A freshly prepared FRAP solution containing 300 mM acetate buffer pH 3.6, 10 mM TPTZ (2, 4, 6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) in 40 mM HCl and 20 mM FeCl3·6H2O (ratio 10:1:1) was warmed at 37 °C for 30 min. Then, 15 µL of the sample extract was mixed with 285 µL of the FRAP solution and incubated for 30 min at 37 °C. The absorbance of the mixture was measured at 593 nm by a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore) using Trolox as the standard agent at concentrations of 0–100 µg/mL with R2 = 0.999. The standard curve is shown in Figure S5.
2.3.7. Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) Determination
The ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) was determined following the method of Huang et al. [26]. A sample solution of 25 µL was mixed with 150 µL of fluorescein solution 81.6 nM. The mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 15 min and then 25 µL of AAPH 153 mM was added. Fluorescence (excitation wavelength at 485 nm and emission wavelength at 530 nm) was read at 2 min time intervals for 90 min by a microplate reader (Varioskan LUX, Thermo Scientific, Singapore) using Trolox as the standard agent at concentrations 0–170 µg/mL with R2 = 0.998. The standard curve is shown in Figure S6.
The antioxidation activities were previously studied [27], and the details are shown in Table 2.
2.4. Characterization of Phenolic Compound Profiles by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS
All extract samples were examined for phenolic and flavonoid compounds following the modified method of Araujo et al. [28] and profiling by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS-positive and -negative electrospray ionization at the University Center Laboratory with ISO accreditation. Each sample (2 µL) was injected into a Zorbax Eclipse Plus C18 Rapid Resolution HD column (150 mm length × 2.1 mm inner diameter) and performed at 25 °C. The mobile phases were solvent A, a mixture of methanol: acetonitrile: water: acetic acid (10:5:85:1, v/v), and solvent B, a mixture of methanol: acetonitrile: acetic acid (60:40:1, v/v), with a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. Wavelengths (λ) at 230, 257, 280, 325, 368, and 450 nm were used to detect the compounds in the sample. Mass spectrometry was run on a Dual AJS ESI for ion source with an MSQ-TOF (model: G6545A, Agilent, Beijing, China) and mass spectrometer range of 100–1500 m/z. Electrospray ionization (ESI) was performed when the gas temperature reached 325 °C with a flow rate of 13 L/min and a nebulizer pressure set at 35 psig for the introduction source. Data were analyzed by MassHunter WorkStation Software Quantitative Analysis Navigator V8 and WorkStation Software Qualitative Analysis Workflows V8 with database MassHunter METLIN PCD. An overview diagram of the characterization of the phenolic profiles by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS is presented in Figure S7.
2.5. Sensory Evaluation
Massaman curry powder and spicy basil leaf curry powder were cooked with the ingredients shown in Table 3 and then presented to 50 panelists for sensory evaluation using a 9-point Hedonic scale following the method of Wichchukit and O’Hahony [29] with ethical approval no. PSU-HREC-2023-008-1-1. Appearance, color, odor, taste, texture, and overall liking attributes were scored. Plain rice was served with the curry dishes, and mouthfeel was rinsed using normal water and fresh cucumber. This study complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the human research ethics committee of Prince of Songkla University (PSU-HREC-2023-008-1-1).
2.6. Statistical Analysis
The experiment was set up using a completely randomized design (CRD). All quality parameters were performed with eight repetitions. Differences in mean values and variations were tested using ANOVA with Tukey’s test (p < 0.05). Statistical analysis of the data was carried out using SPSS statistics software version 22 (IBM, New York, NY, USA).
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Total Phenolic and Flavonoid Contents and Antioxidant Activities
Phenolic compounds are important phytochemical constituents showing redox properties responsible for antioxidant activity with diverse benefits in the human diet [30]. The results indicated that the TPC of spicy basil leaf curry was significantly 6-fold higher than Massaman curry (p < 0.05) (Table 2), while the TFC value of Massaman curry was similar to spicy basil leaf curry. Lu et al. [31] studied the antioxidant capacity and contained phenolic compounds of 18 spices in curry powder, including star anise, fennel, cumin, angelica dahurica root, green prickleyash, Sichuan pepper, dried tangerine peel, white pepper, nutmeg, galangal, dried ginger, tsaoko amomum fruit, villous amomum fruit, dried chili pepper, bay leaves, cinnamon, and mustard, and found that total flavonoids were higher than total phenolics. Total flavonoids were reported as major constituents found in cardamom, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, cumin seed, fennel seed, red chili, coriander, and ginger [32]. Akullo et al. [33] stated that garlic bulbs extracted with ethanol provided higher TPC than TFC, explaining the reason why spicy basil leaf curry contained higher TPC than Massaman curry, even when the spicy basil leaf curry was mainly garlic (45%) and dried basil leaves (35%). Chaudhary et al. [34] reported that using methanol as the solvent for basil leaf extraction provided higher TFC than TPC. Solvent type plays a key role in extraction due to polarity and leads to various phytochemicals.
In this study, antioxidant DPPH and ABTS activities were assessed using Trolox as a standard and determined mainly via hydrogen and electron transfer [35,36]. The FRAP assay was determined by the electron transfer ability of antioxidants by reducing the colorless complex ferric ion (Fe3+) to the blue ferrous complex (Fe2+) [36], while the ORAC assay measured the ability to transfer hydrogen atoms to RO•/ROO• radicals generated by AAPH thermolysis in the presence of a probe that quantified antioxidant oxidation [37]. The results showed that the spicy basil leaf curry expressed higher antioxidant activity values than Massaman curry in all assays (p < 0.05) (Table 2). Dat-arun et al. [8] reported that fresh Massaman curry paste provided DPPH with 11.81 ± 0.06 mg GAE/100 g crude extract and FRAP with 0.311 ± 0.006 mg TE/100 g crude extract. However, to date, no scientific information on spicy basil leaf curry is available. Juntachote and Berghofer [38] found that basil leaves (Ocimum sanctum Linn) recorded DPPH with IC50 20.6 µg extract/mL. Pearson’s correlations of the TPC, TFC, DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC assays were significantly correlated at p < 0.01 with r > 0.974, while TFC was significantly correlated with ORAC at p < 0.05 with r = 0.898, as shown in Table S1. This result suggests that the phytochemicals contained in both curries effectively inhibited the peroxyl radical generated in the human body [39]. Schaich et al. [40] found that DPPH, ABTS, and the ORAC assay had a good relationship and reacted with radicals through a similar mechanism with some modifications. For instance, antioxidants react with DPPH by transferring electrons and/or giving a hydrogen atom back to active molecules or radicals [41]. ABTS radicals were in an inactive form by taking electrons and hydrogen atoms from the antioxidant, while the ORAC assay evaluated the ability of an antioxidant to quench radicals by hydrogen atom transfers independently of electron transfers. The FRAP mechanism is based on electron transfer rather than hydrogen atom transfer [42].
3.2. Characterization of Polyphenols in Spicy Basil Leaf Curry and Massaman Curry Using LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS
Qualitative identification of the polyphenols in the spicy basil leaf and Massaman curries was conducted by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS in both the negative and positive ionization modes (Table 4 and Table 5), and the contained phytochemicals and their biological activities are listed in Table 6. The major constituents found in spicy basil leaf curry were flavonoids and derivatives, comprising 17 compounds, 14 terpenes, 10 phenolics and derivatives, and 21 other types including quinones, alkaloids, chromones, capsaicinoids, flavonoidal alkaloids, and steroidal saponins (Table 4). The main flavonoid derivative was identified as 6-C-beta-D-Xylopyranosyl-8-C-alpha-L-arabinopyranosylapigenin (with abundance: 43.35 × 105), which agreed with the finding of various herbs and spices [43]. Apigenin is a flavonoid compound that effectively downregulates the expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines through the IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 axes [44]. Apiin was the second-most abundant flavonoid (abundance: 40.55 × 105), which is mainly found in celery leaves, parsley leaves, and bell peppers. In this experiment, apiin was found in fresh green and red chili, which are in the same genus as bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) [45]. Adem et al. [46] reported that apiin, hesperidin, rutin, and diosmin were the most effective agents against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro when compared with Nelfinavir (positive control). Cynaroside A (abundance: 31.11 × 105) was found in coriander, basil, eggplant, and ginger rhizome [47]. Both cymaroside and luteolin-7-O-glucoside expressed multiactivity including anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, and antioxidant activity [48]. Song and Park [49] stated that luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside increased the function of heme oxygenase-1, which exhibited a critical role in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis against oxidative stress. The highest terpene contents in the curry were capsianoside II (abundance: 52.23 × 105) and capsianoside I (abundance: 52.23 × 105), which were mainly liberated from chili (Capsicum annuum L.). The main ingredient used in spicy basil leaf curry was chili pods at 11%. Capsianosides, particularly capsianoside F, exhibited tight junction permeability of the human intestine, which mitigated leaky gut syndrome [50,51]. Dihydrocapsaicin (abundance: 18.81 × 105) is commonly found in chili pods and diminishes TNFα-mediated activation of NFkB and its molecular targets in endothelial cells while also inducing upregulation of nitric oxide and exhibiting antioxidant properties [52]. Phenolics and derivatives such as N-feruloyltyramine (abundance: 63.50 × 105) are commonly found in garlic bulbs [53] and mitigate several cardiovascular disorders through cyclooxygenase enzymes I and II [54]. These enzymes play a key role in P-selection, which mediates the formation of platelets and leukocytes in activated endothelial cells [54]. Quinic acid, a phenolic compound (abundance: 44.58 × 105), is found in cinchona bark, coffee beans, tobacco leaves, carrot leaves, and apples. The National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences [55] reported multiple functions for quinic acid such as acting as an antioxidant that has shown anti-cancer activity through apoptosis-mediated cytotoxicity in breast cancer cell testing in mice models [56]. N-trans-Feruloyloctopamine (abundance: 7.79 × 105) is mainly found in garlic and shows high potential as a tyrosinase inhibitor [57], relating to melanin production and skin cancer or carcinoma cells [58]. Extracted garlic skin containing N-trans-feruloyloctopamine inhibited cell proliferation and invasion in hepatocellular carcinoma cells [59]. 6′-Hydroxysimvastatin has been used as a cholesterol-lowering and anti-cardiovascular disease drug [60], while hydrocodone, also found in this study, is a morphinane-like compound commonly used in combination with acetaminophen to control moderate to severe pain [61]. The results showed that spicy basil leaf curry contained high amounts of phytochemicals with various health-promoting properties.
The Massaman curry in this experiment contained 54 flavonoids and derivatives, 23 phenolics and derivatives, 8 terpenes, and 13 other types including quinones, alkaloids, chromones, and ketones, as shown in Table 5. Apigenin 7-O-glucoside is a main flavonoid compound (abundance: 167.45 × 105) generated from several plants [62]. Candida spp., which is the most common cause of yeast infection, is inhibited by Apigenin 7-O-glucoside, which also shows cytotoxic effects on colon cancer cells and cervical cancer HeLa cells as well as alleviating DSS-induced colitis [63]. Apigenin 7-O-glucoside significantly exhibited these mentioned activities [64,65,66]. Kaempferol 4′-glucoside was also found in Massaman curry at an abundance of 155.85 × 105. It has various properties including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-depressant, and anti-epilepsy properties, and it also improves cerebral blood flow [67]. Chang et al. [68] reported that kaempferol 4′-glucoside showed anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NO generation, iNOS protein, and iNOS mRNA level by retarding NF-κB-mediated iNOS gene transcription. Kaempferol also showed significant inhibition of NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer) cell proliferation (p < 0.05) and inhibited the mesenchymal–epithelial transition in progressive lung cancer by promoting NSCLC cell autophagy, leading to NSCLC cell death in a rat model [69]. Yu et al. [70] stated that kaempferol reduced inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by inhibiting IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, CRP, and NO secretion as well as retarding regenerated blood vessels of high intestinal microvascular density [71]. Luteolin (abundance: 91.64 × 105) is a flavone type that is generally present in plants, with multiple functions such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiallergic properties, in particular, against liver disorders, including metabolic-associated fatty liver disease, hepatic fibrosis, and hepatoma [72,73]. He et al. [74] reported that luteolin inhibited Aβ-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal apoptosis via a PPARγ-dependent mechanism, one of the pathways for Alzheimer’s disease in rat models. Wang et al. [75] stated that luteolin inhibited herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection, enhanced antiviral type I interferon production, and activated the cytoplasmic DNA-sensing cGAS-stimulator of the interferon gene (STING) pathway. The main phenolic acid and derivative compound in Massaman curry was glucocaffeic acid (abundance: 52.54 × 105), which is common in both herbs and spices [76,77]. The multifunctions of caffeic acid have been addressed as anti-cancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activities [78]. Caffeic acid recovered ischemia-induced synaptic dysfunction in mouse hippocampal slices [79]. The results indicated that caffeic acid (1–10 μM) did not directly affect synaptic transmission and plasticity but indirectly affected other cellular targets to correct synaptic dysfunction. Quinic acid (abundance: 40.84 × 105) and N-Feruloyltyramine (abundance: 30.35 × 105) were also identified in spicy basil leaf curry. One terpene found in this experiment was cofaryloside (abundance: 16.11 × 105). Cofaryloside I-II has been reported in Yunnan Arabica coffee beans [80,81,82], but no scientific information is currently available. Betulinic acid (abundance: 13.19 × 105) was the second-most abundant terpene compound found in this experiment. Melo et al. [83] reported that betulinic acid is present in various plants. Betulinic acid (50 mg/mL in water) elevated the plasma hormone levels of insulin and leptin and decreased levels of ghrelin hormone in high-fat feed rats. Other biological activities of betulinic acid include anti-HIV, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities [84,85]. Maslinic acid (abundance: 9.60 × 105) was also found in this experiment. Maslinic acid is commonly found in many types of plants and exhibits many health aspects such as hypoglycemic effects, anti-inflammatory effects, neuroprotective effects, antioxidant effects, and anti-tumor effects [86,87]. Cao et al. [88] found that maslinic acid administration favored probiotic bacterial growth in PD mice, which helped to increase striatal serotonin, 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid, and γ-aminobutyric acid levels, reduced levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin 1β in the substantia nigra pars compacta, and significantly prevented dopaminergic neuronal-related Parkinson’s disease in a rat model.
The LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS results indicated that Massaman curry was higher in the number of polyphenolic types and variety of flavonoids and derivatives compared with spicy basil leaf curry activity. However, spicy basil leaf curry provided higher antioxidant activity based on TPC, TFC, DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC, possibility because cynaroside A from basil leaves has strong antioxidant effects, as reported by [49,89,90], where cynaside A exhibited good antioxidant activity with a lower IC50 than quercitrin, rutoside, and protocatechuic acid [89].
Using the LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS technique indicated the possibility of toxins from Massaman curry and spicy basil leaf curry as podophyllotoxin (abundance: 3.12 × 105) and clitidine (abundance: 4.61 × 105), respectively. Podophyllotoxin is mostly generated in the rhizome of Podophyllum species, which grow widely across the Himalayan and Western China regions. Physicians have attempted to use this toxin for external genital and perianal warts caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV can be an opportunistic infection (OI) of HIV [91,92]. Clitidine is created by the poisonous mushroom (Clitocybe acromelalga), and some molds contaminate dried herbs and spices as well as nuts [93,94,95]. Therefore, safety awareness is needed. Clitidine may not be as harmful as aflatoxins and ochratoxins, but its presence indicates that the drying and storage processes for curry powders must be considered and submitted to the Thai FDA for controlling and warning entrepreneurs, companies, and consumers as well as public sectors. Data on the thermal degradation of podophyllotoxin could be destroyed at 114–118 °C [96], and clitidine has no information. Therefore, preventive systems such as washing with proper detergents, for example, bi-sodium carbonate, acetic acid, ozone, and calcium hydroxide [97], drying conditions, and storage with high vacuum values as well as irradiation may need to be applied.
This is the first report using LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS to confirm phytochemicals and non-volatile compounds contained in mixed herbs and spices or curries supporting the body and wellness. This finding generally suggests not only the potential health impact or bioactivity associated with the unique composition of polyphenolics and flavonoids in Massaman or spicy basil leaf curry but also suggests that toxicity due to plant and mold toxin contamination also needs to be considered and managed. In addition, the identified phytochemical profiling found in both curries provided great evidence to extend the intensity determination of specific biological compounds further to obtain more value-added applications including functional ingredients and food, nutraceuticals, and medicinal products.
Table 6Major phytochemicals found in spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry, their biological properties, and their possible plant sources.
| No. | Phytochemical | Biological Activity | Mechanism | Plant Source | Reference | Sample |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phenolic acid and derivatives | ||||||
| 1 | N-Feruloyltyramine | -Antithrombotic. | -Inhibits cyclooxygenase enzymes I and II. | garlic (Allium sativum) | [53,54,98] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Neurogenesis and neurotrophins. | -TrkA/ERK/CREB signaling pathway. | |||||
| 2 | Quinic acid | -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits hydrogen atom transfer, electron transfer, and sequential proton loss electron transfer activities. | cinchona bark, coffee beans, tobacco leaves, carrot leaves, apples, etc. | [55,56,99,100] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Anti-cancer. | -Apoptosis-mediated cytotoxicity. | |||||
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits TNF-α-stimulation by inhibiting the MAP kinase and NF-κB signaling pathways. | |||||
| 3 | N-Feruloyltyramine | -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits tyrosinase gene expression and melanine accumulation in melanoma cells. | garlic (Allium sativum) | [57,58,59] | Spicy basil leaf curry |
| 4 | Glucocaffeic acid | -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits hydrogen atom transfer and radical adduct formation activities. | various plants: coffee, fresh vegetables, fruits, tea, propolis, herbs, spices, etc. | [76,77,79,101,102,103] | Massaman curry |
| -Neuroprotective. | -Affects synaptic transmission, | |||||
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits the activity of NF-κB, | |||||
| -Antiviral. | -Inhibits the growth of both DNA and RNA viruses. | |||||
| -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits the proliferation of HeLa and ME-180 cells. | |||||
| Flavonoids and derivatives | ||||||
| 1 | Apigenin | -Anti-inflammatory. | -Downregulates cytokines through the IL-23/IL-17/IL-22 axis. | herbs and spices | [43,44,104,105,106,107,108] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Antibacterial. | -DNA gyrase harboring the quinolone-resistant S84L mutation. | |||||
| -Anticancer. | -Inhibits the activity of the MAPK, PI3K/Akt, and NF-kB pathways. | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron transfers and metal chelating activities. | |||||
| 2 | Apiin | -Antiviral. | -Against SARS-CoV-2 main protease. | various plants: celery leaves, parsley leaves, bell pepper, etc. | [45,46,109,110,111] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits activity on nitrite (NO) and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. | |||||
| -Anti-hypertension. | -Inhibits the activity of prostaglandin F2α and angiotensin-I-converting enzyme. | |||||
| 3 | Cynaroside | -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits the expression of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, and | various plants: coriander, basil, eggplant, ginger, Merremia tridentata (L.), etc. | [48,112,113,114,115,116] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Anti-diabetic. | -Strong α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. | |||||
| -Antibacterial. | -Reduces the biofilm development of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron transfer and radical adduct formation activities. | |||||
| -Anti-cancer. | -Decreases the phosphorylation level of AKT, mTOR, and P70S6K. | |||||
| 4 | Kaempferol 4′ glucoside | -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits NO generation, iNOS protein, iNOS mRNA level, NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and TNF-α. | abundantly present in plants: tea, beans, broccoli, apples, herbs, etc. | [68,69,117,118,119] | Spicy basil leaf curry and Massaman curry |
| -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits NSCLC (non-small cell lung cancer) cell proliferation and promotes NSCLC cell autophagy and leading to NSCLC cell death. | |||||
| -Neuroprotective. | -Inhibits Aβ deposition in Alzheimer’s disease and α-synuclein aggregation, Lewy body formation in Parkinson’s disease, and promotes dopamine release. | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron transfer and hydrogen atom transfer. | |||||
| 5 | Luteolin | -Neuroprotective. | -Inhibits Aβ-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal apoptosis via the PPARγ-dependent mechanism. | abundantly present in plants: celery, parsley, broccoli, onion leaves, carrots, peppers, cabbages, apple, etc. | [120,121,122,123,124] | Massaman curry |
| -Antioxidation. | -Hydrogen atom transfer and one electron transfer. | |||||
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits the activity of the MAPK and NF-kB pathways and SOCS3 in the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway. | |||||
| -Anti-cancer. | -Luteolin strengthens tumor suppression of radiation and inhibits antiangiogenesis during radiation via decreased Integrin β1 expression. | |||||
| -Anti-apoptotic. | -Reduces cleaved caspase-3 and Bax (pro-apoptotic factor) while increasing the Bcl-2 (antiapoptotic factor) signaling pathways. | |||||
| Terpenes | ||||||
| 1 | Capsinoside | -Anti-leaky gut syndrome. | -Decreases G-actin and cytochalasin D and increases | Capsicum plants | [50,125] | Spicy basil leaf curry |
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits radical adduct formation activities. | |||||
| -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits homozygous mutations in PTEN and TP53 genes in the human prostate cancer cells line and inhibits mutation in codon 13 of the RAS proto-oncogene in colorectal carcinoma cells. | |||||
| 2 | Dihydrocapsaicin | -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits TNF-α, NF-κB and nitric oxide. | Capsicum plants | [52,126,127] | Spicy basil leaf curry |
| -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits lysine-specific demethylase 1. | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron-transfer activity. | |||||
| 3 | Cofaryloside | -Blood circulation enhancer. | -Found in plasma of rats after taking Cyperi Rhizoma, Angelicae Sinensis Radix, Chuanxiong Rhizoma, Paeoniae Radix Alba, and Corydalis Rhizoma but with no proven biological activities. | Yunnan Arabica coffee beans | [80,81,82,128] | Massaman curry |
| 4 | Betulinic acid | -Anti-obese. | -Increases the levels of insulin and leptin and decrease the level of ghrelin. | many fruits and vegetables | [83,129,130,131,132] | Massaman curry |
| -Neuroprotective. | -Inhibits N- and T-type voltage-gated calcium channels. | |||||
| -Anti-cancer. | -Inhibits the proliferation of liver cancer HUH7 and HCCLM3 cells by activating ferritinophagy in cancer cells and modulating the NCOA4/FTH1/LC3II signaling pathway for increase ferroptosis. | |||||
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits the mRNA expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6 and NF-κB and increases IL-10. | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron-transfer activity. | |||||
| 5 | Maslinic acid | -Hypoglycemic effect. | -Increases the expression of Beclin1, ATG1, and Bcl-2 mRNA while decreasing the expression of TNF-α and IL-1β, caspase-3 and Bax mRNA. | various plants: olive, loquat leaves, red dates, eucalyptus, crape myrtle, sage, plantain, Prunella | [86,87,88,133,134,135,136] | Massaman curry |
| -Anti-inflammatory. | -Inhibits the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and iNOS and the COX2, AKT/NF-κB, and MAPK signaling pathways. | |||||
| -Neuroprotective. | -Increases striatal serotonin, 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid, and γ-aminobutyric acid levels in gut microbiota and inhibits neuroinflammation by reducing tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1β. | |||||
| -Antioxidation. | -Inhibits electron transfer. | |||||
| -Anti-tumor. | -Inhibits IL-6 expression, induces JAK and STAT3 phosphorylation, and down-regulates STAT3-mediated protein Bad, Bcl-2, and Bax expression to treat gastric cancer. | |||||
3.3. Sensory Evaluation
The results showed that both curries contained various phytochemicals, in particular, flavonoids, simple phenolic acids, and terpenes. Some bitter and astringent-tasting compounds such as caffeic acid, (−)-epicatechin, and (+)-catechin were also found [137,138,139]. Purves et al. [137] reported that the bitter threshold of quinine was 0.008 mM for humans. A bitter taste can be due to toxins, but beers, wines, dark chocolate, and coffee are bitter tasting [140,141]. Noble [142] stated that small amounts of simple phenolic acids resulted in a bitter taste, while higher phenolic content provided an astringent taste when combined with sourness. However, unpleasant bitter and astringent tastes can be modified by masking with sweet, salty, and umami flavors [143]. For sensory preference, preclinical studies indicated that bitter substances may have potent effects that stimulate the secretion of gastrointestinal (GI) hormones and modulate gut motility via the activation of bitter taste receptors located in the GI tract [144]. The results in Table 7 show that both curries recorded high scores for all attributes (>7/9), with no mention of a bitter taste. The seasoning (sugar and salt) and other combinations (Table 3) such as oil, coconut milk, and chicken breast used in this experiment could be modified or reduced to mask any unpleasant tastes via various proposed mechanisms including bitterness-depressant substance absorption, inhibiting receptor sites, and reducing the intensity of bitter molecules as polarity effects. For example, [145,146] explained that spicy and anesthetic effects from clove oil can reduce the bitter taste in oral drugs. Brideau [147] stated that the bitter taste of chlorpheniramine maleate and phenylpropanolamine could be reduced by the combination of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate with certain fruit flavors such as lemon, orange, and cherry.
4. Conclusions
The Massaman and spicy basil leaf curries obtained from blending several herbs and spices were rich in phytochemicals, especially phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Spicy basil leaf curry contained significantly higher phenolic and flavonoid compounds and antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC) than Massaman curry. The characterization of polyphenols in Massaman curry using LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS indicated 23 phenolic acids and derivatives, 54 flavonoids and derivatives, 8 terpenes, and 14 other types, while spicy basil leaf curry was composed of 10 phenolic acids and derivatives, 17 flavonoids and derivatives, 14 terpenes, and 21 other types. Cynaroside or luteolin-7-O-glucoside from basil leaves had a strong antioxidant effect and was the major cause of high antioxidant activity in spicy basil leaf curry. Sensory evaluations of the Massaman and spicy basil leaf curries gave 100% acceptance, with good scores for all attributes. The phenolic and flavonoid compounds contained in both curries such as caffeic acid, (−)-epicatechin, and (+)-catechin induced a bitter and astringent taste, but the panelists did not comment on this because the seasoning and other combinations modified, reduced, and masked the unpleasant bitter taste with a good mouthfeel and overall sensation. However, the high savory perception and health benefits derived from phytochemicals require further study in animal and clinical trials.
Conceptualization, S.S. and K.P.; methodology, S.S., K.P., C.T.Y., P.D., T.U., T.W. and R.S.S.; validation, S.S.; formal analysis, K.P., N.S. and W.C.; investigation, S.S., K.P., V.S., N.S. and W.C.; resources, S.S., K.P., W.C. and N.S.; data curation, K.P. and V.S. writing—original draft preparation, S.S. and K.P.; writing—review and editing, S.S., K.P., C.T.Y., P.D. and T.U.; supervision, S.S. and K.P.; project administration, S.S. and K.P.; funding acquisition, S.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of this manuscript.
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the human research ethics committee of Prince of Songkla University (PSU-HREC-2023-008-1-1 on 14 July 2023).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.
All data are contained within this article and the
We thank the Prince of Songkhla University and its Faculty of Agro-Industry for equipment and laboratory support.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of this study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of this manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Footnotes
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Ingredient ratios used in Massaman and spicy basil leaf curry powders.
| Item | Ingredient | Harvest Time after Plantation or Flowering | Amount (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Massaman Curry | Spicy Basil Leaf Curry | |||
| 1 | fresh lemongrass | 8–12 mo 1 | 5 | - |
| 2 | fresh green chili | 4–5 mo 2 | - | 5.5 |
| 3 | fresh galangal | 8–12 mo 1 | 5 | - |
| 4 | fresh shallot bulb | 8–12 mo 1 | 35 | - |
| 5 | fresh garlic bulb | 8–12 mo 1 | 15 | 45 |
| 6 | dried chili pepper | 4–5 mo 2 | 15 | - |
| 7 | dried black pepper | 4–5 mo 2 | 1 | 7 |
| 8 | fresh ginger | 8–12 mo 1 | 4 | - |
| 9 | fresh coriander root | 6–8 mo 1 | - | 3 |
| 10 | fresh red chili | 4–5 mo 2 | - | 5.5 |
| 11 | mixed spices * | No information | 20 | - |
| 12 | dried holy basil leaves | 4–6 mo 1 | - | 34 |
Mixed spices * include Kaffir lime skin, coriander seeds, caraway seeds, cloves, nutmeg seeds, cinnamon, cardamom, and nutmeg mace. 1 means harvest time after plantation. 2 means harvest time after flowering.
Total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity in Massaman curry and spicy basil leaf curry.
| Antioxidant Activities | Massaman Curry | Spicy Basil Leaf Curry |
|---|---|---|
| TPC | 880.08 ± 48.46 b | 5595.29 ± 332.20 a |
| TFC | 271.36 ± 8.97 b | 371.26 ± 13.66 a |
| DPPH | 163.50 ± 1.79 b | 268.22 ± 3.01 a |
| ABTS | 2164.38 ± 2.04 b | 7923.68 ± 515.36 a |
| FRAP | 2757.64 ± 69.30 b | 5662.43 ± 247.86 a |
| ORAC | 1340.28 ± 18.76 b | 1940.10 ± 118.34 a |
All data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (sd). Different superscripts (a and b) indicate significant differences (p < 0.05), TPC: total phenolic content, TFC: total flavonoid content, DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl radical scavenging activity, ABTS: 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid assay, FRAP: ferric-reducing antioxidant power assay, ORAC: oxygen radical absorbance capacity, TE: Trolox equivalent, RE: rutin equivalent, and DW: dried weight.
Ingredients and cooking ratios of Massaman and spicy basil leaf curries.
| Item | Ingredient | Amount (g) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Massaman | Spicy Basil Leaves | ||
| 1 | Chicken breast | 250 | 250 |
| 2 | Curry powder | 10 | 10 |
| 3 | Salt | 4 | 10 |
| 4 | Sugar | 17 | 25 |
| 5 | Coconut milk | 250 | 0 |
| 6 | Plain water | 250 | 30 |
| 7 | Potato | 100 | 0 |
| 8 | Cooking oil | 0 | 5 |
Characterization of variously identified phytochemicals found in spicy basil leaf curry as determined by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS.
| No. | Proposed Compound | Molecular | m/z | Molecular Weight | RT (min) | ms/ms | Abundant |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phenolic acid and derivatives | |||||||
| 1 | Quinic acid | C7 H12 O6 | 191.06 | 192.06 | 1.95 | 191.06 | 44.58 |
| 2 | trans-Cinnamic acid | C9 H8 O2 | 147.05 | 148.05 | 3.77 | 103.06 | 2.35 |
| 3 | Chlorogenic acid | C16 H18 O9 | 353.09 | 354.10 | 8.94 | 191.06 | 5.54 |
| 4 | trans-p-Coumaric acid 4-glucoside | C15 H18 O8 | 325.09 | 326.10 | 9.76 | 163.04 | 4.04 |
| 5 | Isoferuloyl C1-glucuronide | C16 H18 O10 | 415.09 | 370.09 | 14.72 | 415.09 | 2.86 |
| 6 | 7-Hydroxy-4-methylphthalide O-[arabinosyl-(1->6)-glucoside] | C20 H26 O12 | 457.13 | 458.14 | 18.00 | 457.13 | 6.11 |
| 7 | N-trans-Feruloyloctopamine | C18 H19 N O5 | 328.12 | 329.13 | 19.58 | 328.12 | 7.79 |
| 8 | Moschamine | C20 H20 N2 O4 | 351.13 | 352.14 | 20.58 | 351.13 | 2.37 |
| 9 | N-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)ethyl p-hydroxycinnamide | C17 H17 N O3 | 282.11 | 283.12 | 21.18 | 282.11 | 2.57 |
| 10 | N-Feruloyltyramine | C18 H19 N O4 | 312.12 | 313.13 | 21.76 | 312.12 | 63.50 |
| Flavonoids and derivatives | |||||||
| 11 | Pyrocatechol | C6 H6 O2 | 109.03 | 110.04 | 5.30 | 109.03 | 1.79 |
| 12 | Cynaroside A | C21 H32 O10 | 443.19 | 444.20 | 7.41 | 443.19 | 31.11 |
| 13 | Vitexin 4′-O-galactoside | C27 H30 O15 | 593.15 | 594.16 | 13.49 | 593.15 | 3.98 |
| 14 | Apiin | C26 H28 O14 | 563.14 | 564.15 | 14.68 | 563.14 | 40.55 |
| 15 | Isorhamnetin 3-lactoside | C28 H32 O17 | 639.16 | 640.16 | 15.76 | 639.15 | 2.12 |
| 16 | Kaempferol 3-rhamnoside-(1->2)-rhamnoside | C27 H30 O14 | 577.16 | 578.16 | 16.84 | 577.15 | 5.51 |
| 17 | Quercetin 3-galactoside | C21 H20 O12 | 463.09 | 464.10 | 18.20 | 463.09 | 6.12 |
| 18 | Isorhamnetin 3-O-beta-(6″-O-E-p-coumaroylglucoside)-7-O-beta-glucoside | C37 H38 O19 | 785.19 | 786.20 | 19.78 | 785.19 | 3.75 |
| 19 | (3″-Apiosyl-6″-malonyl)astragalin | C29 H30 O18 | 665.13 | 666.14 | 20.14 | 621.14 | 3.34 |
| 20 | Keyakinin B | C22 H22 O12 | 477.10 | 478.11 | 20.31 | 477.10 | 11.88 |
| 21 | 6-C-beta-D-Xylopyranosyl-8-C-alpha-L-arabinopyranosylapigenin | C25 H26 O13 | 533.13 | 534.14 | 20.96 | 269.04 | 43.35 |
| 22 | Mirificin | C26 H28 O13 | 547.15 | 548.15 | 21.26 | 269.05 | 3.20 |
| 23 | 6-C-Methylkaempferol 3-glucoside | C22 H22 O11 | 461.11 | 462.12 | 22.36 | 461.11 | 3.50 |
| 24 | (±)-Naringenin | C15 H12 O5 | 271.06 | 272.07 | 24.94 | 271.06 | 4.01 |
| 25 | Apigenin | C15 H10 O5 | 269.05 | 270.05 | 26.78 | 269.04 | 3.11 |
| 26 | 7,3′,4′-Trihydroxy-3,8-dimethoxyflavone | C17 H14 O7 | 329.07 | 330.07 | 28.34 | 329.07 | 1.17 |
| 27 | Curcumin | C21 H20 O6 | 367.12 | 368.13 | 33.08 | 134.04 | 2.93 |
| Quinone | |||||||
| 28 | Idebenone metabolite (Benzenebutanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-3,4-dimethoxy-6-methyl-5-(sulfooxy)-) | C13 H18 O9 S | 349.06 | 350.07 | 6.80 | 349.06 | 20.13 |
| 29 | 1,2,6,8-Tetrahydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone 2-O-b-D-glucoside | C21 H20 O11 | 447.09 | 448.10 | 15.49 | 447.09 | 4.68 |
| 30 | Isosalsolidine | C12 H13 N O2 | 248.09 | 203.09 | 16.82 | 248.09 | 3.75 |
| 31 | 1,2,6,8-Tetrahydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone 2-O-b-D-glucoside | C21 H20 O11 | 447.09 | 448.10 | 17.71 | 447.09 | 54.67 |
| 32 | Embelin | C17 H26 O4 | 293.18 | 294.18 | 32.48 | 221.15 | 3.85 |
| Terpene | |||||||
| 33 | Cincassiol B | C20 H32 O8 | 445.21 | 400.21 | 12.40 | 385.19 | 2.44 |
| 34 | Hallactone B | C20 H24 O9 S | 439.11 | 440.11 | 17.04 | 439.11 | 3.82 |
| 35 | Capsianoside I | C32 H52 O14 | 659.33 | 660.34 | 29.20 | 659.33 | 19.04 |
| 36 | Capsianoside III | C50 H84 O26 | 1099.52 | 1100.52 | 29.22 | 1099.52 | 3.42 |
| 37 | (−)-Fusicoplagin A | C24 H38 O7 | 497.28 | 438.26 | 31.12 | 497.28 | 6.68 |
| 38 | Capsianoside II | C50 H84 O25 | 1083.52 | 1084.53 | 31.25 | 1083.52 | 52.23 |
| 39 | Lyciumoside IV | C38 H64 O16 | 775.41 | 776.42 | 32.75 | 775.41 | 1.43 |
| 40 | Capsianoside VI | C44 H74 O20 | 921.47 | 922.48 | 32.96 | 921.47 | 3.00 |
| 41 | Capsianoside IV | C32 H52 O13 | 643.33 | 644.34 | 34.26 | 643.33 | 6.15 |
| 42 | Dihydrocapsaicin | C18 H29 N O3 | 306.21 | 307.21 | 34.74 | 170.16 | 18.81 |
| 43 | Capsianoside D | C82 H134 O38 | 862.42 | 1726.85 | 34.86 | 862.42 | 7.94 |
| 44 | Lucidenic acid M | C27 H42 O6 | 507.29 | 462.30 | 35.36 | 507.29 | 0.90 |
| 45 | Cyclopassifloside VII | C37 H62 O13 | 759.42 | 714.42 | 35.62 | 759.42 | 1.11 |
| 46 | Capsianoside F | C82 H134 O37 | 854.42 | 1710.86 | 36.18 | 854.42 | 16.35 |
| Alkaloid | |||||||
| 47 | (2E)-Piperamide-C5:1 | C16 H19 N O3 | 272.13 | 273.14 | 25.38 | 272.13 | 20.63 |
| 48 | Coumaperine | C16 H19 N O2 | 256.13 | 257.14 | 28.11 | 256.13 | 5.23 |
| 49 | Feruperine | C17 H21 N O3 | 286.14 | 287.15 | 28.35 | 286.14 | 3.05 |
| 50 | Piperolactam A | C16 H11 N O3 | 264.07 | 265.07 | 28.54 | 249.04 | 5.65 |
| Chromones | |||||||
| 51 | 3′-Deaminofusarochromanone | C15 H19 N O4 | 276.12 | 277.13 | 5.90 | 276.12 | 2.65 |
| 52 | Eugenitol | C11 H10 O4 | 205.05 | 206.06 | 15.40 | 205.05 | 4.14 |
| 53 | 5,7,3′,4′-Tetrahydroxy-4-phenylcoumarin 5-O-apiosyl-(1->6)-glucoside | C26 H28 O15 | 579.14 | 580.14 | 17.45 | 579.14 | 87.61 |
| 54 | Cofaryloside | C26 H42 O10 | 513.27 | 514.28 | 24.82 | 513.27 | 17.28 |
| Capsaicinoid | |||||||
| 55 | Capsaicin | C18 H27 N O3 | 304.19 | 305.20 | 32.93 | 168.14 | 26.69 |
| 56 | Homocapsaicin | C19 H29 N O3 | 318.21 | 319.21 | 34.94 | 182.15 | 1.96 |
| 57 | Homodihydrocapsaicin | C19 H31 N O3 | 320.22 | 321.23 | 36.54 | 184.17 | 3.56 |
| Flavonoidal alkaloid | |||||||
| 58 | Ficine | C20 H19 N O4 | 336.12 | 337.13 | 29.34 | 336.12 | 1.07 |
| Steroidal saponins | |||||||
| 59 | Cistocardin | C51 H84 O24 | 1125.53 | 1080.53 | 33.61 | 1125.53 | 1.06 |
| Other | |||||||
| 60 | Clitidine | C11 H14 N2 O6 | 269.08 | 270.09 | 4.52 | 58.03 | 4.61 |
| 61 | Hydrocodone | C18 H21 N O3 | 298.14 | 299.15 | 28.65 | 298.14 | 3.98 |
| 62 | 6′-Hydroxysimvastatin | C25 H38 O6 | 433.26 | 434.27 | 36.92 | 433.26 | 2.12 |
Characterization of variously identified phytochemicals found in Massaman curry as determined by LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS.
| No. | Proposed Compound | Molecular Formula | m/z | Molecular Weight | RT (min) | ms/ms | Abundant |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phenolic acid and derivatives | |||||||
| 1 | Quinic acid | C7 H12 O6 | 191.06 | 192.06 | 1.95 | 191.06 | 40.84 |
| 2 | Shikimic acid | C7 H10 O5 | 173.05 | 174.05 | 2.01 | 93.03 | 4.72 |
| 3 | Itaconic acid | C5 H6 O4 | 129.02 | 130.03 | 2.23 | 85.03 | 1.48 |
| 4 | 4-Glucogallic acid | C13 H16 O10 | 331.07 | 332.07 | 2.94 | 331.07 | 1.16 |
| 5 | Gallic acid | C7 H6 O5 | 169.01 | 170.02 | 3.11 | 125.02 | 7.21 |
| 6 | 2-Hydroxycinnamic acid | C9 H8 O3 | 163.04 | 164.05 | 5.60 | 119.05 | 2.20 |
| 7 | trans-p-Coumaric acid 4-glucoside | C15 H18 O8 | 325.09 | 326.10 | 5.62 | 163.04 | 8.43 |
| 8 | Glucocaffeic acid | C15 H18 O9 | 341.09 | 342.10 | 6.55 | 341.09 | 52.54 |
| 9 | 5Z-Caffeoylquinic acid | C16 H18 O9 | 353.09 | 354.10 | 8.41 | 353.09 | 6.36 |
| 10 | Chlorogenic acid | C16 H18 O9 | 353.09 | 354.10 | 9.04 | 191.06 | 4.35 |
| 11 | Esculetin | C9 H6 O4 | 177.02 | 178.03 | 10.77 | 177.02 | 3.35 |
| 12 | Dihydroconiferin | C16 H24 O8 | 343.14 | 344.15 | 13.03 | 59.01 | 23.97 |
| 13 | Dihydromelilotoside | C15 H20 O8 | 327.11 | 328.12 | 13.20 | 165.06 | 3.32 |
| 14 | 3-O-Caffeoyl-4-O-methylquinic acid | C17 H20 O9 | 367.10 | 368.11 | 13.63 | 191.06 | 5.34 |
| 15 | Dihydroferulic acid 4-O-glucuronide | C16 H20 O10 | 371.10 | 372.11 | 13.83 | 371.10 | 2.10 |
| 16 | 4-Feruloyl-1,5-quinolactone | C17 H18 O8 | 395.10 | 350.10 | 16.09 | 395.10 | 4.12 |
| 17 | N-trans-Feruloyloctopamine | C18 H19 N O5 | 328.12 | 329.13 | 17.52 | 310.11 | 2.68 |
| 18 | 3-Hydroxychavicol 1-glucoside | C15 H20 O7 | 311.11 | 312.12 | 18.90 | 149.06 | 1.02 |
| 19 | N-(p-Hydroxyphenyl)ethyl p-hydroxycinnamide | C17 H17 N O3 | 282.11 | 283.12 | 21.16 | 282.11 | 2.84 |
| 20 | N-Feruloyltyramine | C18 H19 N O4 | 312.12 | 313.13 | 21.71 | 312.12 | 30.35 |
| 21 | Orthothymotinic acid | C11 H14 O3 | 193.09 | 194.09 | 22.92 | 193.09 | 0.72 |
| 22 | trans-Cinnamic acid | C9 H8 O2 | 147.05 | 148.05 | 23.47 | 103.06 | 0.70 |
| 23 | 2,8-Di-O-methylellagic acid | C16 H10 O8 | 329.03 | 330.04 | 25.17 | 329.03 | 3.57 |
| Flavonoids and derivatives | |||||||
| 24 | Procyanidin B2 | C30 H26 O12 | 577.13 | 578.14 | 5.13 | 577.13 | 5.37 |
| 25 | Cynaroside A | C21 H32 O10 | 443.19 | 444.20 | 7.41 | 443.19 | 4.84 |
| 26 | (±)-Catechin | C15 H14 O6 | 289.07 | 290.08 | 8.16 | 289.07 | 5.98 |
| 27 | Pavetannin B2 | C45 H36 O18 | 863.18 | 864.19 | 10.53 | 863.18 | 13.99 |
| 28 | (+)-Epicatechin | C15 H14 O6 | 289.07 | 290.08 | 12.48 | 289.07 | 7.77 |
| 29 | Macrocarposide | C21 H22 O11 | 449.11 | 450.12 | 12.65 | 449.11 | 4.27 |
| 30 | Vitexin 4′-O-galactoside | C27 H30 O15 | 593.15 | 594.16 | 13.49 | 593.15 | 15.15 |
| 31 | Apiin | C26 H28 O14 | 563.14 | 564.15 | 14.68 | 563.14 | 74.47 |
| 32 | Rutin | C27 H30 O16 | 609.14 | 610.15 | 15.16 | 609.14 | 14.92 |
| 33 | Luteolin 4′-glucoside 7-galacturonide | C27 H28 O17 | 623.12 | 624.13 | 15.44 | 285.04 | 9.22 |
| 34 | Isoorientin 3′-O-glucuronide | C27 H28 O17 | 311.06 | 624.13 | 15.49 | 311.06 | 8.10 |
| 35 | Isovitexin | C21 H20 O10 | 431.10 | 432.11 | 16.89 | 431.10 | 2.33 |
| 36 | Kaempferol 3-rhamnoside-(1->2)-rhamnoside | C27 H30 O14 | 577.16 | 578.16 | 16.94 | 577.16 | 2.39 |
| 37 | 6″-(4-Carboxy-3-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoyl) hyperin | C27 H28 O16 | 607.13 | 608.14 | 17.09 | 269.05 | 12.65 |
| 38 | Kaempferol 4′-glucoside | C21 H20 O11 | 447.09 | 448.10 | 17.65 | 447.09 | 155.85 |
| 39 | Quercetin 3′-O-glucuronide | C21 H18 O13 | 477.07 | 478.07 | 17.97 | 301.04 | 14.12 |
| 40 | Quercetin 3-galactoside | C21 H20 O12 | 463.09 | 464.10 | 18.06 | 463.09 | 19.65 |
| 41 | Tricetin 3′-xyloside | C20 H18 O11 | 433.08 | 434.08 | 18.67 | 433.08 | 13.52 |
| 42 | Apigenin 7-O-glucoside | C21 H20 O10 | 431.10 | 432.11 | 19.65 | 431.10 | 167.45 |
| 43 | Gossypetin 7-rhamnoside | C21 H20 O12 | 463.09 | 464.10 | 19.87 | 301.04 | 37.72 |
| 44 | Quercetin | C15 H10 O7 | 301.04 | 302.04 | 19.90 | 301.04 | 45.78 |
| 45 | Isoscoparin 2″-O-glucoside | C28 H32 O16 | 623.16 | 624.17 | 20.12 | 623.16 | 17.25 |
| 46 | Eugenol O-[a-L-Arabinofuranosyl-(1->6)-b-D-glucopyranoside] | C21 H30 O11 | 517.19 | 458.18 | 20.28 | 293.09 | 3.66 |
| 47 | Keyakinin B | C22 H22 O12 | 477.10 | 478.11 | 20.31 | 477.10 | 43.54 |
| 48 | Orobol 8-C-(6″-acetylglucoside) | C23 H22 O12 | 489.10 | 490.11 | 20.42 | 489.10 | 30.15 |
| 49 | 6-C-beta-D-Xylopyranosylluteolin | C20 H18 O10 | 417.08 | 418.09 | 20.62 | 417.08 | 4.56 |
| 50 | Vitexin 6″-(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarate) | C27 H28 O14 | 575.14 | 576.15 | 21.03 | 575.14 | 5.64 |
| 51 | Isorhamnetin 3-O-[4-Hydroxy-E-cinnamoyl-(->6)-b-D-glucopyranosyl-(1->2)-a-L-rhamnopyranoside] | C37 H38 O18 | 769.20 | 770.20 | 21.32 | 769.20 | 5.47 |
| 52 | Hieracin | C15 H10 O7 | 301.04 | 302.04 | 21.69 | 301.03 | 2.30 |
| 53 | Okanin 3,4-dimethyl ehter 4′-glucoside | C23 H26 O11 | 477.14 | 478.15 | 21.99 | 477.14 | 9.84 |
| 54 | 6-C-beta-D-Galactosylapigenin | C21 H20 O10 | 431.10 | 432.11 | 22.18 | 431.10 | 16.50 |
| 55 | Fujikinetin 7-O-glucoside | C23 H22 O11 | 473.11 | 474.12 | 22.36 | 473.11 | 52.49 |
| 56 | Apigenin | C15 H10 O5 | 269.05 | 270.05 | 22.40 | 269.05 | 89.56 |
| 57 | 3′,4′-Methylenedioxy epicatechin 5,7-dimethyl ether | C18 H18 O6 | 329.10 | 330.11 | 23.12 | 135.04 | 1.46 |
| 58 | Villol | C23 H22 O9 | 441.12 | 442.13 | 23.83 | 279.07 | 9.06 |
| 59 | Luteolin | C15 H10 O6 | 285.04 | 286.05 | 24.37 | 285.04 | 91.64 |
| 60 | 6″-O-Acetylvicenin 1 | C28 H30 O15 | 605.15 | 606.16 | 24.60 | 605.15 | 1.91 |
| 61 | (±)-Naringenin | C15 H12 O5 | 271.06 | 272.07 | 24.95 | 271.06 | 6.74 |
| 62 | Iristectorigenin A 7-O-glucoside | C23 H24 O12 | 491.12 | 492.13 | 26.23 | 491.12 | 0.83 |
| 63 | Licofuranocoumarin | C21 H20 O7 | 383.11 | 384.12 | 26.78 | 383.11 | 2.78 |
| 64 | Diosmetin | C16 H12 O6 | 299.06 | 300.06 | 27.21 | 300.03 | 10.22 |
| 65 | Isorhamnetin | C16 H12 O7 | 315.05 | 316.06 | 27.28 | 315.05 | 15.18 |
| 66 | Apigenin 7-(6″-crotonylglucoside) | C25 H24 O11 | 499.12 | 500.13 | 27.78 | 499.12 | 3.10 |
| 67 | Eugenol | C10 H12 O2 | 163.08 | 164.08 | 28.26 | 163.08 | 2.21 |
| 68 | Formononetin | C16 H12 O4 | 267.07 | 268.07 | 28.81 | 267.07 | 1.60 |
| 69 | 5,3′,4′-Trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone | C17 H12 O8 | 343.05 | 344.05 | 28.89 | 343.05 | 18.51 |
| 70 | Procyanidin B1 | C30 H26 O12 | 577.13 | 578.14 | 29.42 | 577.13 | 1.89 |
| 71 | Prunetin | C16 H12 O5 | 283.06 | 284.07 | 31.76 | 283.06 | 4.93 |
| 72 | Ovalitenin A | C18 H14 O3 | 277.09 | 278.09 | 32.23 | 277.09 | 1.10 |
| 73 | Tetrahydrogambogic acid | C38 H48 O8 | 631.33 | 632.33 | 33.08 | 315.16 | 7.24 |
| 74 | Curcumin | C21 H20 O6 | 367.12 | 368.13 | 33.16 | 134.04 | 0.94 |
| 75 | 2″,3″-Di-O-p-coumaroylafzelin | C39 H32 O14 | 723.17 | 724.18 | 33.51 | 723.17 | 6.07 |
| 76 | Kaempferol 3-(2″,4″-di-(Z)-p-coumaroylrhamnoside) | C39 H32 O14 | 723.17 | 724.18 | 34.23 | 723.17 | 2.34 |
| 77 | Broussinol | C20 H22 O4 | 325.14 | 326.15 | 36.42 | 325.14 | 38.90 |
| Quinone | |||||||
| 78 | Idebenone metabolite (QS-6) | C15 H20 O6 | 295.12 | 296.13 | 13.35 | 295.12 | 1.51 |
| 79 | Isosalsolidine | C12 H13 N O2 | 248.09 | 203.09 | 16.82 | 248.09 | 7.46 |
| 80 | Annocherine B | C18 H17 N O4 | 310.11 | 311.12 | 17.47 | 310.11 | 2.37 |
| 81 | 1,2,6,8-Tetrahydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone 2-O-b-D-glucoside | C21 H20 O11 | 447.09 | 448.10 | 19.43 | 447.09 | 11.38 |
| 82 | 13-Dihydroadriamycinone (Adriamycinol aglycone) | C21 H20 O9 | 415.10 | 416.11 | 22.77 | 415.10 | 4.49 |
| 83 | 7-Deoxy-13-dihydroadriamycinone | C21 H20 O8 | 399.11 | 400.12 | 24.74 | 399.11 | 4.96 |
| 84 | Embelin | C17 H26 O4 | 293.18 | 294.18 | 32.48 | 236.10 | 2.20 |
| Terpene | |||||||
| 85 | Viguiestenin | C21 H28 O7 | 391.18 | 392.18 | 20.48 | 391.18 | 2.12 |
| 86 | Cofaryloside | C26 H42 O10 | 513.27 | 514.28 | 24.85 | 513.27 | 16.11 |
| 87 | Pseudolaric acid B | C23 H28 O8 | 431.17 | 432.18 | 27.36 | 431.17 | 9.20 |
| 88 | Lucidenic acid M | C27 H42 O6 | 507.30 | 462.30 | 35.34 | 507.29 | 3.70 |
| 89 | bayogenin | C30 H48 O5 | 487.34 | 488.35 | 35.56 | 487.34 | 1.68 |
| 90 | Maslinic acid | C30 H48 O4 | 471.35 | 472.35 | 41.34 | 471.35 | 9.60 |
| 91 | cis-p-Coumaroylcorosolic acid | C39 H54 O6 | 617.38 | 618.39 | 43.65 | 617.38 | 4.41 |
| 92 | Betulinic acid | C30 H48 O3 | 455.35 | 456.36 | 44.61 | 455.35 | 13.19 |
| Alkaloid | |||||||
| 93 | Piperic acid | C12 H10 O4 | 263.06 | 218.06 | 10.37 | 263.06 | 1.24 |
| 94 | (2E)-Piperamide-C5:1 | C16 H19 N O3 | 272.13 | 273.14 | 25.34 | 272.13 | 5.11 |
| Chromones | |||||||
| 95 | Eugenitol | C11 H10 O4 | 205.05 | 206.06 | 15.39 | 93.03 | 0.74 |
| 96 | 3′-Deaminofusarochromanone | C15 H19 N O4 | 276.12 | 277.13 | 25.78 | 276.12 | 1.67 |
| Ketone | |||||||
| 97 | 6-Gingerol | C17 H26 O4 | 293.18 | 294.18 | 30.80 | 57.03 | 1.57 |
| 98 | (±)10-Gingerol | C21 H34 O4 | 349.24 | 350.25 | 38.48 | 57.03 | 4.20 |
| Other | |||||||
| 99 | Podophyllotoxin | C18 H21 N O3 | 298.14 | 299.15 | 28.65 | 298.14 | 3.98 |
Sensory scores of dishes cooked with Massaman curry and spicy basil leaf curry.
| Item | Characteristic | Massaman Curry | Spicy Basil Leaf Curry |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Appearance | 7.40 ± 0.89 ns | 7.73 ± 0.87 ns |
| 2 | Color | 7.47 ± 0.90 ns | 7.43 ± 0.86 ns |
| 3 | Odor | 7.50 ± 1.04 ns | 7.60 ± 0.86 ns |
| 4 | Flavor | 7.50 ± 1.04 ns | 7.53 ± 0.78 ns |
| 5 | Taste | 7.57 ± 0.90 ns | 7.33 ± 1.52 ns |
| 6 | Texture | 7.60 ± 0.89 ns | 7.70 ± 0.65 ns |
| 7 | Overall | 7.60 ± 0.81 ns | 7.80 ± 0.71 ns |
| 8 | Acceptance (%) | 100 | 100 |
| 9 | Non-acceptance (%) | 0 | 0 |
All data are mean ± standard deviation (sd); ns means nonsignificant differences (p < 0.05).
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at:
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; Pumethakul, Kanyamanee 1 ; Chutha Takahashi Yupanqui 1 ; Seechamnanturakit, Vatcharee 1 ; Detarun, Preeyabhorn 1 ; Utaipan, Tanyarath 2 ; Sirinupong, Nualpun 1 ; Chansuwan, Worrapanit 1 ; Wittaya, Thawien 3 ; Samakradhamrongthai, Rajnibhas Sukeaw 4
1 Centre of Excellence in Functional Foods and Gastronomy, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai 90110, Songkhla, Thailand;
2 Department of Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Pattani Campus, Prince of Songkla University, Muang, Rusamilae 94000, Pattani, Thailand;
3 Center of Excellence in Bio-Based Materials and Packaging Innovation, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai 90110, Songkhla, Thailand;
4 Division of Product Development Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Changwat, Thailand;