Introduction
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are essential in modern society, their relevance and importance being reflected in their abundance, the millions of people they serve around the world, the jobs they create, and the volunteers they involve (Rios Romero et al., 2023). NGOs have become powerful actors through their actions, responding to the needs and challenges of society, and promoting human rights and social justice (Asogwa et al., 2022). Advocating for the support and consolidation of democracy, NGOs fight for human rights and the interests of citizens within states by identifying government corruption and possible atrocities carried out at high levels (Herrold and AbouAssi, 2023). GlobeNewswire.com (2023) reported that the NGO market comprises health charities, human rights, environmental and wildlife organizations, as well as other charities, and is experiencing gradual expansion due to digital opportunities. The global NGO and charity market stood at $267.54 billion in 2021 and reached $291.03 billion in 2022. After recovering from the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, the market is expected to increase to $390.63 billion by 2026. There are about 10 million NGOs worldwide (Prahalatakan, 2023), and donations received through online campaigns or virtual events have grown at an accelerated rate in recent years, reaching a total increase of 42% over the past three years (donorbox.org, 2023).
The COVID-19 pandemic led to changes in the fundraising landscape (Lynn-Sze and Fathi, 2023), and some NGOs reported challenges with their missions during the outbreak (Waniak-Michalak et al., 2022), including difficulties in maintaining the continuity of their operations (Sorly et al., 2021) and, in some cases, fewer donations (Deitrick et al., 2020). However, the pandemic also contributed to the development of new practices and possibilities for online donations through social media. Social media platforms provide NGOs with the framework to implement fundraising campaigns and raise donations in a more practical, accessible, and attractive manner (Lynn-Sze and Fathi, 2023; Elvira-Lorilla et al., 2023), shaping social entrepreneurial intention, empathy, and self-efficacy (Le et al., 2023). Thus, through digital technologies, NGOs are now able to reach and communicate with a larger audience worldwide, rather than being restricted to certain geographical regions (Dimitrova and Ozdora-Aksak, 2023). Social media platforms offer more innovative and appealing characteristics for NGOs compared to traditional media channels, including easy information sharing, accessibility, and facilitating dynamic and fluid communication with stakeholders (Elvira-Lorilla et al., 2023). Potential barriers that may arise in the use of social media by NGOs or donors should therefore be addressed and managed. These may be barriers linked to technology, or individual barriers related to users’ knowledge and skills (Kabra et al., 2023), influencing entrepreneurial value creation choice in relation to institutions and economic context (Diaz Tautiva et al., 2023).
The growing popularity of social networks has, however, caused an explosion of misinformation that is easy to generate and disseminate to all audiences (Saurwein and Spencer-Smith, 2020). The speed of information creation and distribution on these social networks has led to the sharing of fake news (Jahng, 2021). While fake news is not a recent occurrence, it has become dangerous on social media, providing a fertile setting for spreading unfiltered and unreliable content (Lazer et al., 2018) and influencing the public’s perception of reality (Apuke and Omar, 2021). Another consequence is reputational damage for organizations or brands and the deterioration of the relationship with target audiences (Jahng, 2021). NGOs have failed to avoid the negative effects of fake news. Following Hurricane Harvey’s devastation, phoney reports of the Red Cross discarding donations appeared on Facebook, leading to massive fake news dissemination (Jahng, 2021). Other examples are linked to G. Menon, the director of the NGO ActionAid, who was accused in online posts of being a member of ISIS, or the NGO Save the Children, whose efforts to rescue people in the Mediterranean Sea during the migration crisis have been heavily affected by false accusations that the organization was collaborating with human traffickers (Al Achkar, 2021).
Fake news has become part of social networks, and studies analysing its impact and role in social media have been conducted in different fields such as journalism (Saurwein and Spencer-Smith, 2020), politics (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017), marketing, public relations, and digital media (Bonet-Jover et al., 2021). However, relatively little research has been conducted on its effect in the non-profit and NGO sectors (Vafeiadis et al., 2020; Jahng, 2021). The few studies that have tracked the effect of fake news on public organizations (Bickham et al., 2018) highlight the decline in trust in non-profit organizations due to fake news spreading about donations and spending by these organizations. When trust is affected, donations decrease, and to avoid this, non-profits are forced to draw public attention to the sharing of fake news in public spaces. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the effect of fake news shared on social networks on the intention to donate online to international non-governmental organizations (INGOs). This study contributes to the existing research gap by empirically testing a conceptual model that presents the antecedents (predictors) of social network users’ intention to donate online to INGOs. Based on the available evidence and current understanding, this is one of the first attempts to propose a theoretical model relating to the effect of SM users’ exposure to fake news on their intention to donate online to INGOs. After introductory considerations, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is presented, and the research hypotheses and conceptual model based on the existing contributions of the literature are developed. The second section contains the research methodology and the data analysis procedures with the help of structural equations in SmartPLS. The third section contains the research results and their interpretation. The paper ends with the theoretical contributions, managerial consequences, future research directions and limitations of the research.
Literature review: deducing hypotheses and the conceptual model
Theory of Planned Behaviour and the intention to donate online. Conceptual clarifications
Research on the literature examined the variables influencing people’s intentions to make online donations. Reddick and Ponomariov (2012) suggest that greater levels of associational participation (i.e., pre-existing involvement) enhance the probability of donating online to different causes or charities, being a more important factor than the availability of technology in explaining donating behaviour. Moreover, a significant proportion of non-profit members are already aware of the possibility of contributions to NGOs via the Internet and express their willingness to donate online in the future (Treiblmaier and Pollach, 2006). Liu et al. (2022) reveal that extrinsic factors, such as project information, retweeter information, and social media information, have a substantial influence on individuals’ overall propensity to donate to medical crowdfunding projects. They argue that individual attitudes and perceived behavioural control positively influence the intention to donate (Liu et al., 2022). Similarly, Song and Kim’s (2020) study supports the idea that individual attitudes toward NGOs influence the intention to donate. Treiblmaier and Pollach (2006) examine the outside influences that might impact people’s overall attitudes towards online donations, suggesting that extrinsic factors (charitable projects, non-profit organizations, the Internet) have a significant effect on people’s attitudes towards online donations, and consequently have a major impact on their intention to donate. Other studies examine the impact of charitable organizations on people’s online donation intentions (Reddick and Ponomariov, 2012) or individual attitudes toward non-profit organizations to explain their intention to donate (Song and Kim, 2020). Positive attitudes related to perceived behavioural control, moral norms, and prior behaviour can predict donors’ intention to donate (Knowles et al., 2012). Other studies track the relationship between antecedent factors and behavioural intention to make charitable contributions online (Rodriguez-Ricardo et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019), showing that a person’s perceived identification with a crowdfunding network and its innovative nature exert a beneficial impact on their intention to donate.
To predict donation behaviour, research has consistently focused on motivational theories (Florenthal and Awad, 2021). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) assumes that predictions about an individual’s behaviour can best be made by establishing their behavioural intention (Sura et al., 2017; Kim and Park, 2023). TPB has previously been considered as a theoretical framework in various research studies based on non-profit organizations (Knowles et al., 2012; Mittelman and Rojas-Mendez, 2018), demonstrating its validity and value. The prior application of TPB in non-profit research in both non-Western and Western countries (Mittelman and Rojas-Mendez, 2018) has had a favourable influence on using this motivational theory to predict donor behaviour (Florenthal and Awad, 2021).
According to TPB, intention is the main element that determines behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). While people act according to their intentions and perceptions of self-control over their behaviour, intention, in turn, is influenced by attitude (i.e., positive or negative evaluations of performing a behaviour), social pressure and societal expectations to perform or not perform a behaviour (subjective norms), and the ease or difficulty of performing a behaviour (perceived behavioural control) (Millán et al., 2023). Subjective norms have been extensively studied for donation intentions and found to be relevant (Baudier et al., 2023). These norms consist of two components (Mittelman and Rojas-Mendez, 2018); normative beliefs, i.e., the judgements and perceptions of people close to an individual towards a behaviour, and motivation which describes whether relevant people in the social environment close to the individual approve or disapprove of a behaviour. Two different types of factors can determine the control of perceived behaviour: internal control factors (relating to the individual’s abilities and skills) and external control factors, such as the environment, external barriers and reliance on others (Mittelman and Rojas-Mendez, 2018). The more favourable and stronger the attitude towards a behaviour, the higher the intention to perform that behaviour (Sura et al., 2017).
By applying TPB, the models proposed by Treiblmaier and Pollach (2006) and Sura et al. (2017) to examine the effect of external factors on social media users’ attitudes towards online donation intentions to international NGOs are extended. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of online intention donation behaviour by testing how external factors—in this case, the sharing of fake news on social media—affect the intention to donate online to NGOs. The generality and significance of TPB for analysing and understanding online behavioural intention led us to extend the theoretical framework of the research to examine people’s attitudes and intentions towards online donations to international NGOs as a result of a priori exposure to fake news about NGOs shared on social media.
Hypothesis and conceptual model development
Compared to real news, fake news spreads faster, has a longer lifespan, and has a greater impact on the much wider audience it is likely to reach (Vafeiadis and Xiao, 2021). Through social networks, exchanging information between users has become much easier (Pelet et al., 2017), but sharing more and more news with family and friends increases the possibility of disseminating false and unverified content (Wei et al., 2023). Apuke and Omar (2021) note the existence of fake news sharing behaviour among social network users, while Tandoc and Kim (2023) find that one cause of the spread of fake news on social networks is the sheer amount of information that appears there, and the fact that users prefer to access news from online social media platforms (Talwar et al., 2019) compared with traditional media channels (Wei et al., 2023). Previous research (Ajina et al., 2023) reveals that social media is responsible for the extensive diffusion of inaccurate news. The dissemination of bogus content has not bypassed any aspect of people’s lives (Apuke and Omar, 2021), and as already mentioned, NGOs have not been spared either (Jahng, 2021). Campaigns that take place digitally, through misinformation and digital attacks, and that affect NGOs in fulfilling their mission and damage community relations, are hard to manage and can be difficult and time-consuming to recover from (Al-Achkar, 2021). As a result, it is assumed that:
H1: Social media usage has a positive influence on users’ intention to share fake news about international non-governmental organizations.
Social networks and platforms are undoubtedly the most popular communication channel in the world. Social media usage focuses on the variety of activities that people can undertake using social media and is closely tied to the intentions of social media usage (Lau, 2017). Through social media, NGOs can increase their visibility, showcase their causes, interact more easily with stakeholders, volunteers, and donors (Bilgin and Kethüda, 2022), and promote their brands (Wut et al., 2022). Social media platforms support NGOs and charity campaigns, promoting “e-philanthropy” (Asante et al., 2021, p. 3). This concept refers to the altruism that takes place in cyberspace, where charities operate to support the welfare of others and for a better society (Alam and Islam, 2021). Social media is a financially convenient channel for NGOs in their quest to reach as many potential donors as possible (Wut et al., 2022).
Brand associations and reputation are very important for NGOs because potential donors can distinguish a brand and thus decide on their preference regarding donation intention (Rios Romero et al., 2023). By building a recognizable brand, NGOs can have a major effect on their funders (Yoga and Bumi, 2020), and attract new donors and volunteers (Vafeiadis et al., 2020). Consequently, some international NGOs are using one-way, informative communication on social media to protect their brand (Comfort and Hester, 2019). Social media users can spread positive or negative messages about NGOs based on their reputation. Previous seminal works in fake news literature indicate that the relationship between brands and fake news is complicated (Obadă, 2019) since brands can be sources or victims of fake news (Berthon et al., 2018). If a brand with a good reputation is a source of fake news, this could lead to increased sharing behaviour among social media users. Sometimes, the sharing of fake news will have negative consequences not only on commercial brands but also on the reputation of non-profit organizations and NGOs, and on the willingness to donate (Sarstedt and Schloderer, 2010). Therefore, the following hypothesis can be inferred:
H2: Brand reputation of international non-governmental organizations exerts a positive influence on sharing fake news about them via social media.
Fake news content that is shared on social media affects the perception of those who encounter it and can have a great impact on social and public health issues (Ardèvol-Abreu et al., 2020). Fake news shared on social media and the whole phenomenon of online misinformation has become a very complex problem for organizations, even for non-profit ones, causing reputational damage and altering their relationships with key stakeholders (Jahng, 2021). Moreover, fake campaigns that are conducted on social media not only mislead those who meet them (Potthast et al., 2017) but have serious repercussions on the brand image of the targeted organizations (Kumar et al., 2023). Consequently, the following hypothesis are proposed:
H3: Sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media positively influences users’ views on the perceived risks of online donations.
H4: Sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media has a positive influence on users’ attitude towards donating online.
H5: Sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media exerts a positive influence on users’ intention to donate online.
To achieve their specific missions, NGOs rely on charitable donations from individuals and institutions. Often, however, donors face uncertainty about the value and effectiveness of the services provided by NGOs. It can be difficult for funders and other stakeholders to determine whether their contributions matter and whether NGOs are using them appropriately (Stötzer et al., 2023). For this reason, it is mandatory for NGOs to strengthen their links with donors, making it easier for them to identify with the organization’s social mission and values (Keller et al., 2010) and encourage the intention to donate (Wymer et al., 2021). If the goals advocated by an NGO overlap with a donor’s own values, then they are more likely to consider donating (Rios Romero et al., 2023). Wymer et al. (2021) pointed out that if a donor fails to identify with the causes an NGO supports, even if they are fundamental to society, he or she will be more inclined not to donate. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
H6: Perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations positively influence users’ intention to donate online.
Attitudes towards online donations depend on trust in the NGO and not on the perception of technology, especially when a person has had previous positive experiences relating to donations (Kim and Park, 2023). Strong ties and emotional attitudes towards a non-profit organization can cause a much higher desire for donor involvement (Florenthal and Awad, 2021). Reddick and Ponomariov (2012) suggest that NGOs themselves play a fundamental role in forecasting individuals’ intention to donate online, stating that a stronger association of people with the organization will increase the chance of a donation. Literature (Mittelman and Rojas-Mendez, 2018; Millán et al., 2023) finds that attitudes toward online charity donations impact the intention or willingness to make a charitable contribution. da Silva et al. (2020) identify the significant effect of attitude in generating the intention to donate and perform a charitable act. As a result, the following hypotheses can be proposed:
H7: Attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations has a positive influence on users’ views on the perceived risks of online donations.
H8: Attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations exerts a positive influence on users’ intention to donate online.
H9: Attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations has a positive influence on the brand image of these organizations.
Brand image is an essential element for NGOs to position themselves favourably in the minds of donors (Michel and Rieunier, 2012). This positive brand image helps charities to be unique, different, and preferred by donors (Bilgin and Kethüda, 2022). By building a brand image that stands out, NGOs can resonate with potential funders about the relevant causes they represent (Yoga and Bumi, 2020). Considering the increase in the number of NGOs and the competition for donations, do Paço et al. (2014) point out that their brand image was a very important factor in differentiation. The authors suggest that marketing strategies are vital for non-profit organizations in the fundraising process and in attracting new donors. Thus, by knowing the intention of social media users to donate through social media platforms, NGOs can create social media marketing strategies to drive more online donations (Lui and Zainuldin, 2021). NGOs are constantly concerned with developing and improving their communication strategies and relationships with donors. Successful or popular social media platforms have enabled changes in the way donations are collected and made it easier for donors to participate in the act of charitable giving (Park and Rhee, 2019), impacting entrepreneurial self-efficacy in terms of perceived barriers, intentions, and behaviours (Duong, 2023). Hence, the following hypothesis can be assumed:
H10: The brand image of international non-governmental organizations positively influences users’ intention to donate online.
Based on the previous arguments, a theoretical model (see Fig. 1) is proposed, highlighting the relationships between the constructs.
Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Conceptual model of the research.
Research methodology
Sampling methods and data analysis
A quantitative study based on a self-administered online survey was employed among Romanian social media users during the summer of 2023, gauging their intentions to donate online to international non-governmental organizations. A recent survey conducted by the Social Impact Alliance for Central & Eastern Europe (2023) shows that more than 50% of Romanian citizens donate to social causes and are willing to support non-governmental organizations. Most donations are for goods such as medicines and food (Romania Insider, 2023), and the philanthropic potential of Romanians amounting to €1.22 billion annually (SIA, 2024). As there is no official information regarding the exact number of donors to international non-governmental organizations, snowball convenience sampling was employed due to its ease of accessibility, ready availability of respondents, and frequent use in quantitative studies (Etikan et al., 2016).
The authors distributed the questionnaire online, sending invitations via e-mail to student groups, and on various social media platforms frequently used by Romanians (Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, etc.), with participants being asked to share the survey in their online social circles. Preliminary data analysis involved verifying the completion time and eliminating duplicates or incomplete responses, to avoid any non-response bias. At the beginning of the survey, a filter question asked respondents about whether or not they had donated online to (international) non-governmental organizations in the last 12 months. Only the responses from actual donors were considered. The respondents (see Table 1) were mostly women (61.8%) from urban areas (66.4%), high school and college graduates (87.7%), and aged 18–50 (85.1%) with an average monthly income (56.4%).
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample.
Dimension | Variable | Frequency | Percentage |
|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 1007 | 61.8 |
Male | 622 | 38.2 | |
Area of residence | Urban | 1081 | 66.4 |
Rural | 548 | 33.6 | |
Education level | Elementary | 8 | 0.50 |
Secondary school | 52 | 3.2 | |
Vocational/post-secondary school | 140 | 8.6 | |
High school | 706 | 43.3 | |
Tertiary education | 551 | 33.8 | |
Doctoral and postdoctoral studies | 172 | 10.6 | |
Age | <30 | 802 | 49.2 |
30–50 | 585 | 35.9 | |
>50 | 186 | 14.9 | |
Income | Low | 524 | 32.2 |
Mid | 919 | 56.4 | |
High | 186 | 11.4 |
The survey was designed to measure the concepts proposed in Fig. 1 and their subsequent variables (items) delved from the literature (Robinson, 2018). Respondents had to assess all items on a 5-point Likert scale (1: strong disagreement, to 5: strong agreement) adapted for this research (see Table 2). The relations of the conceptual model (see Fig. 1) were tested with the help of structural equations in SmartPLS 3.0 (Ringle et al., 2015) through a two-phase process: firstly, the measurement model was assessed by conducting validity and internal consistency tests (see Table 2); secondly, the relations between the independent and dependent constructs were analysed, followed by confirmatory factor analysis. As observed in Table 2, all constructs have internal consistency, with item loadings exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010; Henseler and Sarstedt, 2013).
Table 2. Constructs and items.
Item | Measurement | Loading | α/AVE/CR |
|---|---|---|---|
Brand reputation of international non-governmental organizations (BRINGO) adapted from Bennett and Gabriel (2003). | |||
International non-governmental organizations … | |||
BRINGO1 | …are highly appreciated in society. | 0.833 | 0.898/0.706/0.923 |
BRINGO2 | …have achieved outstanding results in the field in which they are active. | 0.893 | |
BRINGO3 | …have a good reputation. | 0.912 | |
BRINGO4 | …are admired. | 0.745 | |
BRINGO5 | …are the best in their field. | 0.808 | |
Sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations (SFINGO) adapted from Chadwick and Vaccari (2019). | |||
Sometimes people may share news on social media about non-governmental organizations that are not entirely accurate, exaggerated, or misleading. Over the last month, I have been sharing news on social media about non-governmental organizations, that… | |||
SFINGO1 | …at the time, they appeared accurate, but I subsequently found out they were made up. | 0.931 | 0.925/0.869/0.952 |
SFINGO2 | …appeared correct at the time but was later shown to be a hoax. | 0.938 | |
SFINGO3 | …where satirical news I shared on social media about International NGOs was presented as real news. | 0.928 | |
Social media usage (SMU) adapted from Kumar and Pansari (2016). | |||
SMU1 | I feel disconnected from the world when I’m not logged into a social network. | 0.761 | 0.815/0.638/0.875 |
SMU2 | I am proud to tell others that I am a member of a social network. | 0.869 | |
SMU3 | I follow other users’ comments on social networks and blogs. | 0.701 | |
SMU4 | I often post comments on blogs and social media. | 0.853 | |
Perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations (PRODINGO) adapted from Lang (2018). | |||
When I make online donations to international non-profit organizations… | |||
PRODINGO1 | …I am worried about what others will think of me. | 0.857 | 0.920/0.714/0.937 |
PRODINGO2 | …I am worried that my friends might think about this behaviour. | 0.866 | |
PRODINGO3 | …I feel that my action might not be in fashion. | 0.878 | |
PRODINGO4 | …it makes me feel uncomfortable. | 0.818 | |
PRODINGO5 | …I feel that this action does not match my prestige. | 0.850 | |
PRODINGO6 | …I am afraid that the money I donate will be of no use. | 0.797 | |
Attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations (ADONGO) adapted from Treiblmaier and Pollach (2006). | |||
I believe that online donations to international non-governmental organizations are generally… | |||
ADONGO1 | …unproblematic. | 0.835 | 0.819/0.649/0.881 |
ADONGO2 | …secure. | 0.788 | |
ADONGO3 | …save time. | 0.845 | |
ADONGO4 | …convenient. | 0.750 | |
Intention to donate online to international non-governmental organizations (IDONGO) adapted from Bilgin and Kethüda (2022). | |||
In the future… | |||
IDONGO1 | …I will make online donations to international non-governmental organizations. | 0.930 | 0.918/0.859/0.948 |
IDONGO2 | …I am likely to donate online to international non-governmental organizations. | 0.919 | |
IDONGO3 | …I will continue donating online to international non-governmental organizations. | 0.931 | |
Brand image of international non-governmental organizations (BIINGO) adapted from Bilgin and Kethüda (2022). | |||
This international non-governmental organization … | |||
BIINGO1 | …is one of the leading ones. | 0.880 | 0.843/0.761/0.905 |
BIINGO2 | …is one that I have a good impression of. | 0.880 | |
BIINGO3 | …has a good image in people’s minds. | 0.857 | |
Cronbach Alpha > 0.7; CR: composite reliability > 0.7; AVE: average variance extracted > 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010; Henseler and Sarstedt, 2013).
AVE average variance extracted.
As observed in Table 2, each construct was verified through reliability indicators, which exceeded the minimum threshold of stringency. The analysis involved testing the discriminant validity with the help of the Fornell–Larcker criterion (see Table 3) and Heterotrait–Monotrait (>0.9) (Hair et al., 2010; Henseler and Sarstedt, 2013).
Table 3. Discriminant validity analysis.
Construct | ADONGO | BIINGO | BRINGO | IDONGO | PRODINGO | SFINGO | SMU |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fornell–Larcker criterion | |||||||
ADONGO | 0.806 | ||||||
BIINGO | 0.074 | 0.873 | |||||
BRINGO | 0.097 | 0.367 | 0.840 | ||||
IDONGO | 0.056 | 0.746 | 0.383 | 0.927 | |||
PRODINGO | 0.728 | 0.084 | 0.094 | 0.106 | 0.845 | ||
SFINGO | 0.170 | 0.030 | 0.120 | 0.069 | 0.251 | 0.932 | |
SMU | 0.294 | 0.122 | 0.038 | 0.038 | 0.427 | 0.245 | 0.799 |
Hetertrait–Monotrait criterion | |||||||
ADONGO | |||||||
BIINGO | 0.101 | ||||||
BRINGO | 0.102 | 0.435 | |||||
IDONGO | 0.080 | 0.847 | 0.428 | ||||
PRODINGO | 0.830 | 0.099 | 0.091 | 0.118 | |||
SFINGO | 0.193 | 0.036 | 0.122 | 0.075 | 0.272 | ||
SMU | 0.340 | 0.161 | 0.046 | 0.152 | 0.469 | 0.267 | |
ADONGO attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations, BIINGO brand image of international non-governmental organizations, BRINGO brand reputation of international non-governmental organizations, IDONGO intention to donate online to international non-governmental organizations, PRODINGO perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations, SFINGO sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations, SMU social media usage.
To assess the method’s common bias, a collinearity analysis was also performed; therefore, the variance inflation factors (VIF) for all items were determined. It was found that all values are below the threshold of 5, as recommended by Ringle et al. (2015). The highest VIF value observed in the dataset was 3.720, which was for the PRODINGO2 item. This result indicates the absence of multicollinearity among the items. Subsequently, a bootstrap procedure was employed to test the hypotheses and examine the relationships between latent variables. Out of the 10 hypotheses tested, all showed a significant, positive relationship based on t-statistics and were therefore accepted (Table 4).
Table 4. The path coefficients of the structural equation model.
Paths | Path coefficients | Standard deviation | T-value | CIa | P-value | Hypotheses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SMU → SFINGO | 0.240 | 0.024 | 9.938 | 0.194–0.288 | 0.000*** | H1-Fail to reject |
BRINGO → SFINGO | 0.111 | 0.021 | 5.183 | 0.067–0.148 | 0.000*** | H2-Fail to reject |
SFINGO → PRODINGO | 0.131 | 0.019 | 6.956 | 0.095–0.168 | 0.000*** | H3-Fail to reject |
SFINGO → ADONGO | 0.170 | 0.027 | 6.342 | 0.107–0.218 | 0.000*** | H4-Fail to reject |
SFINGO → IDONGO | 0.038 | 0.017 | 2.245 | 0.007–0.069 | 0.025* | H5-Fail to reject |
PRODINGO → IDONGO | 0.080 | 0.023 | 4.479 | 0.032–0.121 | 0.001*** | H6-Fail to reject |
ADONGO → PRODINGO | 0.706 | 0.015 | 48.524 | 0.670–0.730 | 0.000*** | H7-Fail to reject |
ADONGO → IDONGO | −0.063 | 0.026 | 2.426 | −0.111 to −0.013 | 0.016* | H8-Fail to reject |
ADONGO → BIINGO | 0.073 | 0.028 | 2.615 | 0.022–0.125 | 0.009** | H9-Fail to reject |
BIINGO → IDONGO | 0.743 | 0.015 | 50.115 | 0.713–0.768 | 0.000*** | H10-Fail to reject |
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
aCI = confidence Interval (2.5–97.5%).
The evaluation of the structural models
The evaluation of the structural models revealed that there was no issue of collinearity among the constructs. The highest VIF value within the inner model was 2.212, observed for the relationship between PRODINGO and INDONGO, which is well below the threshold of 5. The goodness of fit for the saturated model was deemed acceptable. The square root mean residual (SRMR) had a value of SRMR = 0.048, which falls below the threshold of 0.08, indicating a good fit. Sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations and attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations explains 54.7% of the variance of perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations (R2 = 0.547). Perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations, sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations, attitude towards donating online and brand image of international non-governmental organizations explain 56.2% of the variance in the intention towards online donations (R2 = 0.562), defining a strong predicting power of the structural model (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Predictors of social media users’ intention to donate online to International NGOs.
The results of H1 (β = 0.240; T-value = 9.938; p < 0.001) pinpoint the medium intense, but strong significant influence of social media usage on users’ intention to share fake news about international non-governmental organizations (see table 4); therefore, H1 could not be rejected. Prior studies have shown consistent results, highlighting the significant influence of social media in generating traffic to fake news sites (Nelson and Taneja, 2018) and in disseminating fake news on social media platforms (Obadă and Dabija, 2022). In many cases, social media serves as a deceptive platform for the propagation of harmful rumours, which may represent risks to different organizations and their stakeholders (Vafeiadis et al., 2020).
The second hypothesis investigated the impact of the brand reputation of international non-governmental organizations on sharing fake news about them via social media. The results of H2 (β = 0.111; T-value = 5.183; p < 0.001) show that the relation between the construct is of medium intensity, but strong significance; therefore, H2 could not be rejected. This result represents a contribution to the literature since previous studies indicate that the impact of brand reputation on the sharing of fake news about brands via social media is a complex issue (Obadă, 2019) and that brands with a good reputation can be a source or a target of fake news (Berthon et al., 2018). The insight of this research indicates that the brand reputation of international non-governmental organizations positively influences the sharing of fake news about them on social media.
Further, the third hypothesis presumed that sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media determines users’ views on the perceived risks of online donations. The results of H3 (β = 0.131; T-value = 6.956; p < 0.001) attest that the influence is of medium intensity, but strong significance; therefore, H3 could not be rejected. Users’ exposure to various forms of information on social media can have a substantial impact on the perceived trustworthiness of non-profit organizations (Wiencierz et al., 2015), shaping users’ cognitions, attitudes, and actions (Obadă, 2019). Disseminating false information about international non-governmental organizations on social media can result in the spread of misinformation regarding the security of online donations, hence influencing consumers’ views on the perceived risks.
The results of H4 (β = 0.170; T-value = 6.342; p < 0.001) indicate that the influence of sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media on users’ attitude towards donating online is of medium positive intensity, but strong significance (see table 4); therefore, H4 could not be rejected. The existing limited literature indicates that sharing fake news on social media platforms impacts users’ attitudes and actions (Obadă, 2019). Yang and Horning (2020) shows that such dissemination may deter individuals from sharing authentic news. As a result, the dissemination of false information regarding international non-governmental organizations on social media can influence users’ attitudes regarding online donations. The current investigation provides, for the first time, empirical evidence of this relationship.
H5 investigated the influence of sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations on social media on users’ intention to donate online. The relation was found to be significant, a path coefficient of 0.038 indicating a positive influence. Therefore, an increase in sharing fake news about international non-governmental organizations leads to a slight increase in users’ intention to donate online, therefore, H5 could not be rejected. Existing research has shown that the social media strategies of non-profit organizations, such as dissemination and interactivity, can positively influence online donation intention, and are mediated by users’ trust and satisfaction (Feng et al., 2017). Therefore, if the bogus content shared on social media is favourable for the NGO, this could increase brand trustworthiness and positively impact online donation intention.
The results for H6 (β = 0.080; T-value = 4.479; p < 0.001) show a low influence of the perceived risks of online donations to international non-governmental organizations on users’ intention to donate online, but a high statistical significance; therefore, H6 could not be rejected. This finding constitutes an additional contribution to the body of knowledge, as previous research on the influence of perceived risks associated with online donations to international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on users’ intention to make online donations is limited. For example, Yavas et al. (1993) assert that although the perceived risk has minimal impact on donation behaviour, its incorporation with demographic variables including income, education, gender, and age can improve predictions.
The results of the seventh hypothesis (β = 0.706; T-value = 48.524; p < 0.001) show a very strong and significant relation between the attitude towards online donation to international non-governmental organizations on users’ perceptions of the risks of online donations; therefore, H7 could not be rejected. The result is consistent with previous research on the relationship between online donations to NGOs and the risk perception of donors. Yavas et al. (1993) discovered that the influence of perceived risk on donation behaviour was minimal, whereas Treiblmaier and Pollach (2008) identified Internet trust as a crucial factor. Sura et al. (2017) highlighted that Internet technology features people’s general attitude towards online donation, and general attitude positively influences people’s intention to donate via social media.
The results for H8 (β = −0.063; T-value = 2.426; p < 0.05) pinpoint that the presumed attitude causes an adverse effect, generating limitations or even blocking the intention to donate to international non-governmental organizations. The influence is of very low intensity, but significant. These results indicate a statistically significant relationship between the attitude toward donating online to non-governmental organizations and users’ intention to donate online. However, the negative coefficient (−0.063) suggests an indirect correlation between these two variables, meaning that an increase in the attitude towards donating online to non-governmental organizations determines a decrease in the intention to donate online, and vice versa. Therefore, it can be concluded that the attitude towards donating online to non-governmental organizations exerts a negative influence on users’ intention to donate online. When the perception of risks associated with online donations increases, the intention to donate online tends to decrease. This finding suggests that there may be obstacles or concerns about the safety or reliability of online donations that may deter potential donors from contributing to international non-governmental organizations. Based on these facts, H8 could not be rejected. The findings confirm the literature (Sura et al., 2017) that pinpoints that the general attitude towards online donation plays a significant role in people’s intention to donate online via social media. From a theoretical point of view, these remarks are in line with TPB (Ajzen, 1991), implying that attitude is a key element that predicts behavioural intention (Sura et al., 2017).
Hypothesis 9 presumed that the attitude towards donating online to international non-governmental organizations has a positive influence on brand image. The results (β = 0.073; T-value = 2.615; p < 0.01) depict a low influence of the relation, but are still significant; therefore, H9 could not be rejected. Prior studies have found that an NGO’s brand image is a predictor of the intention to donate. For example, Paço et al. (2014) argue that brand image contributes to the extent to which people intend to give money to NGOs, while Huang and Ku (2016) point to the importance of the relationship between various website-generated brand images and the viewer’s intention to donate towards NGOs.
The results for H10 (β = 0.743; T-value = 50.115; p < 0.001) highlight the very high and significant influence of the brand image of international non-governmental organizations on users’ intention to donate online, allowing the failure of rejection of H10. This result is in line with other investigations (Huang and Ku, 2016) that provide empirical evidence of the influence of brand image on users’ intention to donate online due to a positive brand image characterised by familiarity, credibility, and efficiency (do Paço et al., 2014).
Conclusion and policy implications
This study has examined important predictors of social media users’ intention to donate online to international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) in the fake news era. Using an extension of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as a theoretical structure, the influence of external factors on social media users’ attitudes towards online donations to INGOs is investigated. The results indicate the positive influence of social media usage and brand reputation on sharing fake news about INGOs and, consequently, the perceived risks of online donations, attitude towards donating online to INGOs, and the effect of the brand image of INGOs on the intention to donate online.
One significant discovery made by this research is the significant role played by social media usage in shaping various aspects of the INGOs online donation process. While social media serves as a powerful tool for INGOs to connect with potential donors and raise awareness of their causes, it exposes individuals to fake news. The results indicate that social media usage positively influences the sharing of fake news, which in turn affects the perceived risks associated with online donations and individuals’ attitudes towards online giving. The study highlights the importance of brand reputation for INGOs. A positive brand reputation not only impacts fake news dissemination but also positively contributes to the perception of risks related to online donations and attitudes toward online donations. These findings underscore the need for INGOs to invest in maintaining and promoting a strong and credible digital brand image.
Importantly, this investigation provides valuable insights for communication professionals working in the INGO sector. In an era dominated by fake news, these professionals can take advantage of the findings to adapt their online engagement strategies. By understanding the relationship between social media usage, brand reputation and donor intention, communication professionals can develop targeted campaigns that not only counter the spread of fake news but foster trust and positive attitudes towards online donations to INGOs.
This research provides a significant contribution to understanding the factors influencing online donations to INGOs in the context of the digital age. It highlights the critical role of social media usage and brand reputation while acknowledging the challenges posed by fake news. The insights gained from the study have practical implications for improving online donation efforts and supporting the vital work of INGOs on a global scale.
This research has important managerial implications for communication and brand specialists working in INGOs since it provides useful insights to increase online donation intention. First, the study suggests that social media usage is an important online activity in which social media users can be exposed to bogus information about INGOs. This implies that communication and brand specialists should monitor the messages spread on social media about their organizations and use proactive strategies to prevent the dissemination of fake news. INGOs are encouraged to keep their social media pages updated by sharing real-time information and posting about their most recent activities. The results suggest the importance of building a strong brand reputation for INGOs since this factor is an important predictor of fake news sharing about them on social media. It gives an important insight to practitioners, and we advise strengthening an organization’s reputation by preventing the spreading of fake news. The investigation provides evidence of the extent to which sharing fake news about INGOs on social media influences the perceived risks of online donations to INGOs. In line with this result, INGO communication specialists are strongly recommended to use communication strategies to fight fake news sharing about their organizations, since the consequences are critical for the perceived risks of online donations. It is advised that brand and communications specialists use extreme caution while delivering precise, applicable, and comprehensive information regarding their operations on social media to reduce the perceived risks of online donations. The messages posted on social media should create awareness, generate a positive attitude about INGO’s causes, and reassure donors about the fair use of donations. Security cues must be provided to potential donors to ensure that the online donation page is genuine and not fake. It is advisable for brand and communication specialists to select potential donors carefully by considering how they feel about making an online donation to INGOs. The study’s findings show how crucial it is to pick the correct audience for online fundraising to meet its goal. INGOs are highly encouraged to boost their brand image in light of this finding due to its influence on the intention to donate online. Communication specialists working in INGOs should manage online communication with all their stakeholders (employees, media, volunteers, etc.), not just with potential donors. Consequently, INGOs should work to uphold a positive reputation and image and to increase public trust by alleviating potential donors’ concerns about monetary abuse. For instance, financial reports could be sent as a follow-up to donors after INGO activities are implemented. Finally, the dissemination of fake news about INGOs on social media can have important consequences and can harm non-profit organizations. Practitioners should concentrate on using social media platforms to combat bogus content and convert brand fans into promoters or disseminators of accurate information on social media networks and gatekeepers. Social media users could be encouraged to verify information from official sources, thus limiting its propagation.
There are intrinsic limits to the research that need to be considered in subsequent studies. The study was limited to Romania; hence, its results cannot be broadly applied or generalised to other countries. Since there was insufficient data for a probabilistic sample of the Romanian INGO donor population, convenience sampling was employed. Future studies might use probability sampling techniques and test the conceptual model in other cultural contexts and geographical areas. The results may not fully reflect the dynamic interactions between the variables in the proposed structural model because of the cross-sectional nature of the data. To test the model, longitudinal studies might be employed in further study.
The conceptual model has been tested for one category of NGO, namely international NGOs. In the future, researchers could reproduce the model by considering local, regional or national NGOs, or they could focus on comparing the results between these different types of non-profit organizations. Evaluating social media users’ intention to make online donations to INGOs across different generations (e.g., Silent Generation versus Alpha Generation) could also be a potential research topic for future investigation.
In the study, respondents provided data by referring to the INGOs they liked most, and assessed all items according to these brands, no matter the cause. Future research should replicate the model and compare donors’ perceptions and intentions, considering the causes for which the NGOs were raising funds (i.e., social, environmental, human rights, refugees, etc.).
The research methodology employed did not distinguish between actively spreading fake news about INGOs (with or without malicious intent) and accidentally spreading such information. Future studies could investigate these two different types of behaviour and explore social media users’ motivations. Future research could extend the proposed model to take into consideration the impact of a non-profit’s online donation page features (i.e., design, usability, interactivity, security, etc.), users’ perceptions of the technological system (i.e., perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use), and donors’ optimal experience (i.e., flow state) that occurs while browsing.
Acknowledgements
This paper was made possible also through the project funded by CNCS-UEFISCDI, number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2021-0795.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, DRO, DCD and VC; data curation, DCD; formal analysis, DRO, DCD and VC; methodology, DRO and DCD; validation, DCD and VC; investigation, DCD and DRO; software, DCD; writing-original draft preparation, DRO, DCD and VC; writing-review and editing, DRO, DCD and VC; visualization, DRO and DCD; supervision, DCD; project administration, DCD; funding acquisition, DCD.
Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
As the research was implemented based on a research project implemented at Babes-Bolyai University (CNCS-UEFISCDI, number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2021-0795) the ethical approval was awarded automatically. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed consent
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Abstract
International non-governmental organizations (INGOs) operate worldwide to fulfil important needs and issues faced by global communities, but they are highly dependent on donations. Social media facilitates communication with potential donors but exposes them to fake news. This study examines the effect of a set of predictors of social media users’ intention to donate online to international NGOs, using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as a conceptual structure. A self-administered online survey was used to collect data from 1629 potential donors to INGOs, and structural equation modelling with SmartPLS 3.0 was employed for assessing the model. The study reveals that social media usage and INGOs’ brand reputation positively impact the sharing of fake news, perceived risks of online donations, attitude towards online donations, and brand image of INGOs. Communication specialists could utilise these insights to boost online donations towards INGOs in the age of misinformation.
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Neither ProQuest nor its licensors make any representations or warranties with respect to the translations. The translations are automatically generated "AS IS" and "AS AVAILABLE" and are not retained in our systems. PROQUEST AND ITS LICENSORS SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES FOR AVAILABILITY, ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, COMPLETENESS, NON-INFRINGMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Your use of the translations is subject to all use restrictions contained in your Electronic Products License Agreement and by using the translation functionality you agree to forgo any and all claims against ProQuest or its licensors for your use of the translation functionality and any output derived there from. Hide full disclaimer
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; Câmpian, Veronica 3 1 Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Department of Communication Sciences and Public Relations, Faculty of Philosophy and Socio-Political Sciences, Iași, Romania (GRID:grid.8168.7) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 1784)
2 Babeș-Bolyai University, Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Cluj-Napoca, Romania (GRID:grid.7399.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 1397)
3 Babeș-Bolyai University, Department of Communication, Public Relations and Advertising, Faculty of Political, Administrative and Communication Sciences, Cluj-Napoca, Romania (GRID:grid.7399.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 1397)