ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FEMALE AND MALE EMPLOYMENT IN TÜRKİYE WITH DIFFERENT VARIABLES

Abstract

The research aims to analyze the differences between male and female employment in Turkey between 2007 and 2022. In this process, various variables are taken into account and the results are supported by TUIK (Turkish Statistical Institute) data. In this study, panel data of TUIK for the years 2007-2022 were used as the methodology. These data were analyzed using SPSS 22 and E-Views programs using Correlation, Ano va, Independent Samples t test, Man-Whitney u test and Regression tests. At the end of the analysis, it was seen that there is a high degree of correlation between female and male employment and that there is a high level of difference in terms of employment in all female age groups. According to the regression analysis results, female employment grows by 0.28 units per year, while male employment grows by 0.11 units per year. This shows that female employment has been rising faster than male employment in recent years.

Headnote

(Received: July 2023; Accepted: October 2023; Published: July 2024)

Abstract: The research aims to analyze the differences between male and female employment in Turkey between 2007 and 2022. In this process, various variables are taken into account and the results are supported by TUIK (Turkish Statistical Institute) data. In this study, panel data of TUIK for the years 2007-2022 were used as the methodology. These data were analyzed using SPSS 22 and E-Views programs using Correlation, Ano va, Independent Samples t test, Man-Whitney u test and Regression tests. At the end of the analysis, it was seen that there is a high degree of correlation between female and male employment and that there is a high level of difference in terms of employment in all female age groups. According to the regression analysis results, female employment grows by 0.28 units per year, while male employment grows by 0.11 units per year. This shows that female employment has been rising faster than male employment in recent years.

Keywords: Female; Male; Employment; Gender; Inequality; Education; Discrimination.

JEL Codes: C10, C51, J16, J21, K31.

1. Introduction

In many undeveloped, underdeveloped and developing countries of the world, there is little or no female employment. One of the most important factors affecting this situation is gender discrimination. When we look at the results of a study conducted by the World Labor Organization "ILO" in 2015, the labor force participation rate of men worldwide is 72% and the labor force participation rate of women is 46%. It is also emphasized that more than 50% of women all over the world are in idle labor force (Akdemir et al., 2019).

Female employment refers to the participation of women in working life in a country or society. Although female labor force participation rate has increased worldwide in recent years, it is still seen that women face various difficulties in being employed in many countries (Korkmaz and Korkut, 2017).

According to a survey conducted by TUIK (Turkish Statistical Institute), 49.9% of Turkey's population is women and 50.1% is men. When the results of the address-based survey conducted by TUIK in 2022 were analyzed, it was determined that the female population was 42 million 575 thousand 441, while the male population was 42 million 704 thousand 112. Considering these data, 49.9% of the total population in Turkey consists of women and 50.1% of the total population consists of men. In this research conducted by TUIK, it is detected that women live longer than men and the female population over 60 years of age is higher than the male population. When the research data of TUIK for 2022 are analyzed, it is determined that the rate of women aged 25 and above who have completed at least one level of education is 87.3%. When this rate is analyzed by gender, it is concluded that the rate of women aged 25 and above who completed at least one level of education in 2008 was 72.6%, while the rate of men was 89.8%. Similarly, this rate was 87.3% for women and 97.1% for men in 2021. Among women aged 25 and above, the rate of higher education graduates is 20.9%. It is also among the findings of this study that the proportion of the population aged 25 and over with higher education and faculty, master's and doctorate degrees in the total population was 9.8% in 2008 and 23.0% in 2021. When this rate is analyzed by gender, it is among the findings of the study that the proportion of women aged 25 and over with higher education degrees was 7.6% in 2008, while the proportion of men was 12.1%. This rate is determined as 20.9% for women and 25.1% for men in 2021. The labor force participation rate of women with higher education is 67.6%. According to the results of the household labor force survey, the labor force participation rate for those aged 15 and over was 51.4% in 2021. This rate was realized as 32.8% for women and 70.3% for men. In 2022, the research conducted by TUIK emphasizes that female employment is less than half of male employment. According to the results of the household labor force survey, the rate of employed people aged 15 and over in 2021 was 45.2%, while this rate was 28.0% for women and 62.8% for men [1].

Among the findings of the study, the highest employment rate was realized in TR21 (Tekirdaǧ, Edirne, Kirklareli) region with 52.0% and the lowest employment rate was realized in TRC3 (Mardin, Batman, Şırnak, Siirt) region with 29.9%. The highest female employment rate was 36.8% in TR90 (Trabzon, Ordu, Giresun, Rize, Artvin, Gümüşhane), followed by TR82 (Kastamonu, Çankırı, Sinop) with 35.6% and TR83 (Samsun, Tokat, Çorum, Amasya) with 33.8%. The lowest female employment rate was realized in TRC3 (Mardin, Batman, Şırnak, Siirt) with 14.5%. This region is followed by TRC2 (Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır) with 15.9% and TRB2 (Van, Muş, Bitlis, Hakkari) with 19.6%. The highest male employment rate is realized in TR21 (Tekirdaǧ, Edirne, Kirklareli) region with 70.0%. This region is followed by TRCI (Gaziantep, Adıyaman, Kilis) with 67.2% and TR52 (Konya, Karaman) with 67.1%. The lowest male employment rate was realized in TRC3 (Mardin, Batman, Şırnak, Siirt) region with 46.7%. This region is followed by TRC2 (Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır) and TRB2 (Van, Muş, Bitlis, Hakkari) with 54.2%. The employment rate of women in the 25-49 age group with children under the age of 3 in their households was 26.1%. Among the findings of the study, 67.5% of working women were satisfied with the time spent traveling to and from work. According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs data, the rate of female ambassadors was 11.9% in 2011 and 27.2% in 2022. The rate of male ambassadors was 88.1% in 2011 and 72.8% in 2022. According to the data of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, as of the end of 2022, the number of female deputies among 579 deputies is 100 and the number of male deputies is 479. The rate of female deputies in the parliament was 9.1% in 2007 and 17.3% in 2022. According to higher education statistics, the proportion of female professors in higher education was 27.6% in the 2010-2011 academic year and 33.2% in the 2021-2022 academic year. While the proportion of female associate professors was 40.2% in the 2021-2022 academic year, the proportion of female lecturers was 50.8%. According to the 2022 Household Labor Force Survey, the proportion of women in senior and middle management positions in companies was 14.4% in 2012 and 20.7% in 2021. According to the results of the family structure survey, when the perceptions of individuals regarding women's work in 2021 are analyzed, the rate of those who think that it is valuable for women to work and contribute to social life is 82.6%, while this rate is 85.6% for women and 79.5% for men [2].

The rate of women using the internet is 80.9%. This rate is lower than that of men. According to the results of the household information technologies utilization survey, the rate of Internet use by individuals in the 16-74 age group in 2022 is 85.0%. This rate is 80.9% for women and 89.1% for men. The rate of women ordering or purchasing products over the Internet is 42.7%. According to the results of the household information technologies usage survey, the proportion of individuals aged 16-74 who ordered or purchased goods or services online for personal use was 46.2% in the twelve-month period covering April 2021 and March 2022. According to gender, the rate of ordering or purchasing goods or services online was 42.7% for women and 49.7% for men. In line with this data, it shows that women are less likely to use technology and internet than men [2].

When the labor force participation rate is analyzed by education level, it is seen that women participate in the labor force more as their education level increases. The labor force participation rate of illiterate female labor force participants is 12.8%, while the labor force participation rate of female labor force participants with less than high school education is 25.3%. The labor force participation rate of female high school graduates is 32.5%, while the labor force participation rate of female vocational or technical high school graduates is 38.5%. The labor force participation rate of female higher education graduates is 67.6% [2].

2. Literature studies in the field

The importance of female employment in Turkey is expressed in many ways in the above-mentioned TUIK data for 2022. Women's participation in the labor force should never be ignored as a factor supporting economic growth and development (Gençtürk, 2022). Making full use of women's talents and potential increases the competitiveness of a country (Karaaslan and Tuncer, 2009). At the same time, the increased economic independence of women creates a more egalitarian structure in society and encourages women's social and political participation (Şahin and Bayhan, 2020). As women's access to education, health and job opportunities increases, productivity and labor productivity increase. This accelerates a country's economic development and provides a competitive advantage in the international arena. (Rauniyar and Kanbur, 2010).

However, the data and results of many scientific studies conducted in recent years show that female employment still faces many obstacles (Sadi and Karatepe, 2021). One of the primary obstacles is discrimination based on gender inequality (Bardakçı and Oǧlak, 2020). Discrimination against women by employers causes women to experience injustice in recruitment processes and promotions (Türeli and Dolmaci, 2013; Okongwu, 2021). There are also structural problems, such as the fact that women are often directed to low-paid and precarious jobs (Sadi and Karatepe, 2021). In addition, gender roles such as housework and family responsibilities prevent women from advancing in business life (Savaşkan, 2019; Ezzedeen and Ritchey, 2009).

There are various solutions to increase female employment (Hayrullahoǧlu, 2020). At the beginning of these problems, the creation and implementation of gender equality laws should be considered as an important start (Artar and Fildiş, 2021). It is very important to make legal arrangements to prevent discrimination against women (Özçelik, 2016). In addition, providing training and professional development opportunities for women will also contribute to eliminating an important different problem (Can, 2019). Women's access to leadership positions should be facilitated and women's entrepreneurship should be supported (Şenel and Sevim, 2022). The rise of women to leadership positions will increase diversity in the business world and ensure that different perspectives are brought into business life (Terjesen, Sealy and Singh, 2009). Promoting flexible working models and sharing housework and childcare responsibilities among men is another factor that will help increase female employment (Tilev, 2018). Flexible working will allow women to better balance work and family responsibilities (Chung and Van Der Lippe, 2020).

Female employment is an important issue that supports economic growth, promotes gender equality and empowers women (Yıldırım and Gül, 2021). In order to increase women's participation in the labor force, solutions such as gender equality laws, education and professional development opportunities, access to leadership positions, and sharing of household responsibilities should be implemented (Yıldız, 2020). In this way, women will have access to more job opportunities and gain economic independence, creating a more socially egalitarian world (Aktaş, 2013). Giving women access to more job opportunities and gaining economic independence is a critical step towards achieving gender equality. This is an important development that will improve the overall well-being of not only individuals but also society (Kruk et al., 2018; Bayeh, 2016). The participation of more women in the labor market will also increase diversity and bring different perspectives to the business world. This will have an impact on making companies more innovative and effective (Teague, 2015).

Problems encountered in the employment of women and men arise as a result of gender-based inequalities and social norms (Doǧan and Piyal, 2017). When the findings and results of research and literature studies are examined; factors such as labor force participation rates, positions in the workplace, salary levels and career opportunities show that there are significant differences between women and men (Halaçlı and Orhan, 2022). Research and literature studies show that there are significant differences between women and men when examining labor force participation, positions in the workplace, salary levels and career opportunities. These differences point to the existence of an important problem of gender inequality (Gould, Schieder and Geier, 2016).

Inequalities in female and male employment have serious consequences at both individual and societal levels (Karatepe and Arıbaş, 2016). First, it is necessary to acknowledge the fact that women's participation in the labor force and economic independence increase the overall welfare of society (Korkmaz et al., 2013). The employment of women contributes to the labor force by supporting the economic growth of a country (Ak, 2021). It provides added value to the country's economy by ensuring the effective use of the country's resources (Düǧer and İskender, 1999). In addition, when women and men have equal access to the labor force on the basis of equality, a society closer to the goal of gender equality is created (Nalbant and Korkmaz, 2019).

However, there are many problems and barriers between male and female employment (Korkmaz and Korkut, 2017). In Turkey, women are often discriminated against in the hiring process and promotions (Bulut and Kızıldaǧ, 2017). Gender-based discrimination and gender stereotypes limit women's promotion to high positions and career progression (Yavuz and Uzun, 2019). Moreover, while women usually work in low-paid jobs, men should be directed to positions with higher wages and better social security (Gültekin, 2022). This situation limits women's economic security and opportunities for advancement (Arkan and Murat, 2021). In addition, women have difficulty achieving work-life balance due to gender roles such as housework and family responsibilities (Bakıcı and Aydın, 2020). Support such as flexible working models, remote working opportunities and childcare services can help women achieve a better work-life balance. Furthermore, by questioning gender roles and adopting an egalitarian approach, women can progress further in business life (Chung and Van Der Lippe, 2020).

Several steps should be taken to find solutions to the problems in female and male employment. First, laws and policies that promote gender equality should be established and implemented (Artar and Fildiş, 2021). Legal regulations should be made to prevent discrimination and gender equality principles should be adopted in workplaces (İleri, 2016). In addition, training and professional development opportunities for women should be provided (Bektaş and Kablan, 2023). Women's access to leadership positions should be facilitated and women's entrepreneurship should be supported (Sosyal, 2010). Work-life balance policies help employees to balance their work and family lives. Practices such as flexible working models, remote working opportunities and flexible working hours provide employees with more control and flexibility. This can increase the participation of women in the labor force (Shagvaliyeva and Yazdanifard, 2014; Doǧrul and Tekeli, 2010).

Problems encountered in the employment of female and male workers should be recognized as a reflection of gender inequalities (Bal, 2014). Increasing women's participation in the labor force and improving women's economic security and social status should be realized through public action (Aǧlı and Tor, 2016). Laws and policies that promote gender equality should ensure that women have equal opportunities in the workplace (Karatepc and Arıbaş, 2015). Policies for training and professional development opportunities, access to leadership positions and work-life balance should be developed and implemented (Güler, 2020). Solutions to help reduce inequalities in female and male employment should be developed and implemented urgently (Yerlikaya, 2022). However, it is more important to implement all these solutions together with raising social awareness and adopting a culture of gender equality (Doǧan, 2013). Raising social awareness means raising awareness of gender equality. This can be achieved through education, campaigns, events, etc. It is also important that the media and other means of communication play a positive role in this regard (Wakefield, Loken and Hornik, 2010).

Purpose

The aim of this research is to determine the difference between female employment and male employment and to reveal the differences between genders.

3. Method and Hypothesis

The variables were determined for the period between 2007-2016. Panel data published by TUIK were evaluated within the scope of the study and adapted to the study and the study was carried out using different statistical analysis methods (Ayta et al., 2022). In addition, in the study, some statistical data of TUIK published after 2016 were interpreted and results were obtained by evaluating them for the study. We proposed several testable hypotheses for a comprehensive examination of economic factors from a gender-focused perspective:

First Hypothesis: Individuals' employment levels are determined by gender.

Second Hypothesis: Individuals' employment levels are shaped by education.

Third Hypothesis: Individuals' working hours are determined by gender.

Fourth Hypothesis: There is a historical development in the employment levels of individuals.

This study includes parametric tests and their application to understand whether there are differences between gender groups in terms of economic factors. General parametric tests are useful when comparing more than two independent samples. Parametric tests can be used to test whether such samples come from the same distribution. These tests are Correlation, Ano va, Independent Samples T Test, Man-Whitney U Test and Regression analyses. Statistical analysis of the application data in this article was performed with SPSS and Evicws software.

3.1. Data analysis

The data obtained from this research were analyzed with SPSS and E-Views programs. Correlation, Anova, Independent Samples T Test, Man-Whitney U Test and Regression analyses were performed on the data obtained.

3.2. Research hypotheses

H1: There is no relationship between variables.

H2: There is no difference in age groups according to gender.

H3: There is no difference in education groups according to gender.

H4: There is no difference in actual working hours by gender.

H5: There is no difference in insurance enrollment by gender.

H6: Female employment does not differ by years.

H7: Male employment docs not differ by years.

4. Application and analysis

4.1. Correlation analysis

H1: There is no relationship between variables.

There is a very high degree of correlation between female and male employment data.

H2: There is no difference in age groups according to gender.

It was aimed to examine whether there are employment differences between men and women in each of the different age groups. The significant value of all analyses is less than the rejection level of 0.05. Accordingly, there is a difference by gender in all age groups.

H3: There is no difference in education groups according to gender.

It was aimed to examine whether there are employment differences between men and women in different education groups. According to the results of the analysis, the significant value is less than 0.05 only in the primary school group. Accordingly, while there is a difference in the level of employment by gender in the primary school group (higher in men), there is no difference by gender in other education groups.

H4: There is no difference in actual working hours by gender.

It was aimed to examine whether there are employment differences between men and women according to the actual working hours. According to the results of the analysis, the significant value is greater than 0.05 only in the 17-35 hours group. Accordingly, there is no difference between men and women in terms of actual working hours in the 17-35 hours group, while all other groups differ in actual working hours by gender.

H5: There is no difference in insurance enrollment by gender.

It was aimed to examine whether there are employment differences between men and women according to insurance enrollment status. According to the results of the analysis, since the significant value is less than 0.05 in both registered and unregistered groups, gender makes a difference according to insurance registration status.

H6: Female employment does not differ by years.

According to the regression analysis, female employment has increased over the years and each year has been 0.28 units higher than the previous year.

H7: Male employment does not differ by years.

According to the regression analysis, male employment has increased over the years and each year has been 0.11 units higher than the previous year.

5. Discussion

In assessing the employment status of women and men, it should be noted that women's secondary labor force status in the labor market is reinforced by the traditional division of labor, where it is women's duty to do housework and raise children, and men's duty to earn a living by working outside the home. This division of labor began to change with the "Industrial Revolution" and a new era began with the migration of the idle female labor force to the cities and their participation in the labor market as labor force (Mammen and Paxson, 2000). In addition, low wages, poor and prolonged working conditions have made women's working lives difficult (Bergman and Gillberg, 2015). World War II enabled women to take part in working life more intensively and women have existed and continue to exist despite the difficulties they face in working life until today. In this study, the differences between male and female employment in Turkey are evaluated in terms of some variables such as age, gender inequality, actual working hours and education (Blundell, Costa Dias, Joyce and Xu, 2020).

In the study, while there are employment differences by gender in the primary school group, this difference disappears in other education groups. This shows that gender-based inequalities start at an early age and that education increases women's labor force participation (Ostergaard, Timmermans and Kristinsson, 2011).

There is a positive relationship between women's position in society, their level of education, their entry into the labor market and their income. Women with low levels of education and lacking the qualifications required by the labor market are usually employed in the labor market in informal, part-time or temporary jobs (Gamez and Angeles, 2021).

According to the results of TUIK, Household Labor Force Survey, the labor force participation rate among the population aged 15 and over in Turkey in 2015 was 71.6% for men and 31.5% for women, while the OECD average for women's labor force participation rate was 51.6%. According to the results of TUIK, Household Labor Force Survey; when the labor force participation rate by education level in 2017 is analyzed; it is seen that women participate in the labor force more as their education level increases. The labor force participation rate of illiterate women is 15.9%, while the labor force participation rate of women with less than a high school education is 27.7%. Turkey ranked 131st among 144 countries in the Global Gender Inequality Index 2017 (TUIK, 2016). This situation reveals gender inequality in employment. It is important to reduce gender-based employment disparities (TUIK, 2023).

The effects of gender inequality are first seen in the restriction of women's education. Due to the duties imposed on women by society, girls are removed from the field of education at an early age and start to deal with domestic work (Ali et ak, 2011). Men receive more education than girls. In 2016, 49.8% of Turkey's population was women, and while 75% of this population was employable, only 32.9% were in the labor force and 28% were employed (Öztürk and Nurdoǧan, 2021). While female employment in the industrial sector was 13.3% in 2002, it increased to 15.5% in December 2015 and decreased to 15.2% in December 2016 (Kutluay Şahin, 2022). According to TUIK 2020 data, the labor force participation rate of illiterate women was 12.4 %, the labor force participation rate of women with less than high school education was 24.1 %, and the rate of women in senior and middle management positions in companies was 19.3 % in 2020. According to the results of the "Women in Statistics 2021" study by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK), the employment rate of women is less than half of that of men. In 2020, the proportion of employed people aged 15 and over in Turkey was 42.8%, compared to 26.3% for women and 59.8% for men. In 2020, the pandemic caused a decrease in female and male labor force participation rates in all education levels. Inequalities in factors such as labor force participation rates, employment conditions and career opportunities clearly show the relationship between female and male employment (TUIK, 2022a).

According to the 2021 Global Gender Gap Report prepared by the World Economic Forum (WeForum), Turkey ranked 133rd among 156 countries. According to the report, the areas in which Turkey is furthest away from equality were identified and it was revealed that the labor force participation rate of women is 38.5% and 78% for men, 16% of senior officials and managers are women and 84% are men, and the estimated income earned by women is 45% of that of men (World Economic Forum, 2017).

According to the data of the General Directorate of Labor, 2020, the proportion of women in senior decision-making positions within the bureaucracy is quite low. In the bureaucracy, 88.62% of senior managers are men and 11.38% are women. In other words, 534 of the 4690 total senior employees are women, while 4156 are men (Sar, 2021).

In the 2023 Global Gender Inequality Report by the World Economic Forum, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan and Turkey are ranked the lowest. In ministerial positions, 50% or more of ministers are women in 11 out of 146 countries, led by Albania, Finland and Spain. However, 75 countries have 20% or fewer women ministers. Moreover, in populous countries such as India, Turkey and China, the proportion of ministers is less than 7% (World Economic Forum, 2023).

The study found that gender makes a difference according to insurance enrollment status. In their study, they stated that women who are not considered as insured under Law No. 5510 are less likely to benefit from the positive discrimination practices being implemented. They also stated that the situation of women working without insurance is more important than the rate of unregistered work and that there is a need to develop policies to protect women who work unregistered and cannot be considered insured (Erikli, 2020).

According to the regression analysis, female employment grows by 0.28 units per year, while male employment grows by 0.11 units per year. This finding indicates that female employment grows faster than male employment. Eurostat 2006-2018 data show that although the gap between the employment rate of women and men in Turkey is very high, the female employment rate has gradually increased in recent years: From 24 percent in 2006 to 28 percent in 2010, 32.5 percent in 2015 and 35.2 percent in 2018. This means an increase of 41 percent in the last 10 years. The rate of increase in the last 12 years is 47%. According to Eurostat data, the gap between male and female employment rates has widened in Turkey and the gap in Turkey is almost double that of the nearest country. In the 28 countries of the European Union (EU), the gap was 12% on average in 2018, while in Turkey it increased to 41% (Çetin and Sevüktekin, 2014).

Although great progress has been made in eliminating gender inequality in Turkey since the 2000s, it is difficult to say that there has been significant progress in this area. According to TUIK, Labor Force Statistics 2014-2020 unemployment rates for women over the age of 15, the unemployment rate was 11.9% in 2014 and approximately 16% in 2020. The unemployment rate has increased with each passing year. According to The World Economic Forum (WEF), Global Gender Gap Report 2021, the region where inequality has decreased the most is Western Europe with 77.6%, while the region where inequality has decreased the least is the Middle East and North Africa region, which includes Turkey, with 60.9% (Korkmaz and Korkut, 2012).

According to the results of TUIK, Household Labor Force Survey, the proportion of employed people aged 15 and over in 2021 was 45.2%. This rate was 28.0% for women and 62.8% for men. The rate of women ambassadors was 27.2%, women MPs 17.3% and women in managerial positions 20.7%. As of 2018, Turkey ranked 69th among 160 countries in the GEI, one of the indices published annually by UNDP and one of the main indicators of human development. It is vital to take the necessary policy steps to raise Turkey's ranking in the GEI, which is calculated on the basis of reproductive health, women's empowerment and economic activities (TUIK, 2022b).

6. Conclusions

There is a high correlation between female and male employment and gender-based inequalities affect both genders. These data provide a strong basis for the development and implementation of gender equality policies. Reducing inequalities between female and male employment is important for a fairer society and a more sustainable economy. Inequalities in factors such as labor force participation rates, employment conditions and career opportunities clearly show the relationship between female and male employment. These data show that female and male employment are mutually influencing factors and that gender-based inequalities affect both genders. Increased female employment supports economic growth and social development, while male employment is important for providing economic security and supporting their families. Reducing the gap between female and male employment is seen as a critical step in achieving the goal of gender equality. This correlation data provides an important basis for societies and governments to develop and implement gender equality policies. To increase labor force participation, it is necessary to provide training and professional development opportunities for women, facilitate women's access to leadership positions and prevent gender-based discrimination. At the same time, men need to share family responsibilities and ensure work-life balance.

There is a gender gap in employment in all age groups. Inequalities between female and male employment start at a young age and continue into old age. This is a result of gender-based discrimination and social norms. Among young people, men generally have higher employment rates, while women are more likely to be directed to precarious and low-paid jobs. Gender stereotypes influence career choices and education preferences. Women are often concentrated in the service sector, in areas such as health and education, while men are more attracted to sectors such as technical, engineering or finance. In the middle age group, the employment gap between women and men becomes more pronounced, often due to household and family responsibilities. Women are forced to leave the labor force or opt for part-time work due to obligations such as childcare and housework. This has a negative impact on women's career progression and employment rates. In old age, men generally have higher labor force participation rates than women. This is influenced by many factors, such as men's longer working hours, different retirement ages and differences in social security systems. It is crucial to implement gender equality policies in order to reduce the disparities in female and male employment in all these age groups. Steps such as breaking gender stereotypes in education, preventing discrimination in the workplace, promoting flexible working models and sharing housework and family responsibilities among men should be taken. This will reduce gender-based employment gaps across all age groups and create a fairer labor market.

While there is a gender difference in the level of employment in the primary school group (higher in men), there is no gender difference in other education groups. This difference in employment shows that gender-based inequalities start at an early age. This is influenced by factors such as social norms, gender roles and educational choices. While boys of primary school age can generally have higher levels of employment, girls tend to be more involved in domestic responsibilities. This is a reflection of gender stereotypes in society, where women are more associated with housework and care work and men are more focused on working life. However, gender-based employment differences disappear in other education groups. There is no significant difference in employment rates between men and women with secondary, high school and university education. In these periods, educational attainment and skills become important factors affecting labor force participation, while the effect of gender on labor force participation decreases. While there are employment differences by gender in the primary school group, this difference disappears in other education groups. This shows that gender-based inequalities start at an early age and that education increases women's labor force participation. Reducing gender-based employment gaps requires raising awareness of gender equality, providing equal educational opportunities, a fairer labor market and breaking gender stereotypes.

While there is no difference between men and women in terms of actual working hours in the 17-35 hours group, all other groups differ in terms of actual working hours by gender. While there is no difference in actual working hours by gender in the 17-35 hours working hours group, there are differences between men and women in other working hours groups. This shows the impact of gender-based inequalities in the labor market. For a more egalitarian labor market, it is important for employers to provide flexibility, encourage equal job sharing and pay attention to work-life balance. However, other working hours groups differ in actual working hours by gender. This shows that differences in working hours have gender-based effects. In other working hours groups, women are generally observed to have lower actual working hours, while men are observed to work longer hours. This difference also shows that it may be caused by various factors. Gender roles, family responsibilities, work-life balance and unequal work sharing all play a role. Women generally spend more time on domestic responsibilities, such as household chores and childcare. This prevents or discourages women from working full-time or long hours. Men, on the other hand, are generally expected to work more hours and focus more on their careers. These differences arise as a result of gender-based inequalities and point to gender-based discrimination in the labor market. Women demand shorter working hours or more flexible working models, employers need to be more sensitive to this issue and policies and practices need to be improved to ensure work-life balance.

Gender creates a difference according to insurance enrollment status. This leads to discussions on gender-based discrimination and inequality in some types of insurance. Regulations and policies on gender-based insurance differences should be made in line with the goal of gender equality and steps should be taken to prevent gender-based discrimination. Insurance systems use gender-based statistics and risk assessments to determine factors such as premiums and policy conditions. This means that gender affects insurance premiums and coverage. Insurance companies use gender-based statistics to assess the different risk profiles between men and women. For example, in some health insurance policies, women may pay higher premiums due to factors such as fertility and gynecological health, while men pay lower premiums. Similarly, car insurance premiums may also differ depending on gender. This is because men are considered to be at higher risk based on traffic accident statistics. This leads to discussions on gender-based discrimination and inequality in insurance systems. In some countries, regulations have been made to legally abolish or limit gender-based premium differences. However, in some countries, insurance companies are given the freedom to take gender differences into account. There is a gender gap according to insurance enrollment status. Insurance systems set premiums and coverage based on gender-based statistics and risk assessments.

According to the regression analysis, female employment grows by 0.28 units per year, while male employment grows by 0.11 units per year. This shows that female employment grows faster than male employment. This finding suggests that female employment is growing faster than male employment. These data show that there is a positive trend in women's labor force participation and gender-based employment gaps tend to decrease. The faster growth in female employment compared to male employment is due to several factors. Increases in women's educational attainment may have increased their labor force participation, giving them access to more employment opportunities. At the same time, increased awareness and policies towards gender equality in society and the business world may have supported women's labor force participation and provided equal opportunities. The rapid growth of women's employment brings many economic and social benefits. Increased female labor force participation supports economic growth and increases the competitiveness of the country. Increased economic independence of women positively affects the welfare of families and social development. Moreover, ensuring gender equality is important for a fairer social structure and transformation of gender norms. According to the results of the regression analysis, female employment grows faster than male employment each year. This finding indicates a positive trend in women's labor force participation and a decline in gender-based employment gaps. Increasing female employment supports economic growth and is an important step towards gender equality and social transformation. These data suggest that policies and measures should be further developed to reduce gender-based employment gaps.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the anonymous reviewers and editors for their valuable contributions.

Funding

The research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

MK and AA conceived the study and were responsible for the data curation, methodology, formal analysis, and discussion of the results. ASY, HG and OD were responsible for the introduction, literature review and conclusion.

Disclosure statement

The authors do not have any competing financial, professional, or personal interests from other parties.

Footnote

* Corresponding author: Ali Serdar Yücel. E-mail: [email protected]

Notes:

[1] https ://data. tuik.gov. tr/Bulten/Index?p=%C4%B0statistiklerle-Kad%C4%B ln-2022-49668&dil=l

[2] https ://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=%C4%B0statistiklerle-Kad%C4%B 1 n-2022-49668&dil=l

References

References

1. Aǧlı, E., Tor, H. (2016), An Analysis of Turkish Women's Status in Educational, Social and Political Life Since the Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey Until Today, International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 2(1), 75-86.

2. Ak, B. (2021), Kadın İstihdamının Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisi: Seçilmiş OECD Ülkeleri ve Türkiye Arasında Karşılaştırma, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 26(4), 475-487.

3. Akdemir, S., Özaktaş, F. D., Aksoy, N. (2019), Türkiye'de ve Seçilmiş Ülkelerde Kadının İşgücü Piyasasındaki Yeri, Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi, 43, 184-202.

4. Aktaş, G. (2013), Feminist Söylemler Baǧlamında Kadın Kimliǧi: Erkek Egemen Bir Toplumda Kadın Olmak, Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 30(1), 53-72.

5. Ali, T. S., Krantz, G., Gul, R., Asad, N., Johansson, E., Mogren, I. (2011), Gender Roles and Their Influence on Life Prospects for Women in Urban Karachi, Pakistan: A Qualitative Study, Global Health Action, 4, 7448. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha.v4i0.7448

6. Arkan, N., Murat, G. (2021), Çalışma Hayatında Kadınlara Yönelik Sosyal Koruma, Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi, 11(1), 175-194.

7. Artaş, T., Fildiş, A. T. (2021), Türkiye'de Cinsiyet Eşitliǧi Söylemi ve Uygulamaları: Karşılaştırmalı Analiz, Marmara Üniversitesi Kadın ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(1), 1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/mukatcad.!

8. Aytaç, A., Korkmaz, M. (2022), An analysis of the world paper industry with a focus on Europe and trade perspective. Studia Universitatis -Vasile Goldiş Arad. Setia Ştiinţe Economice, 32(2), 24-40. https://doi.org/10.2478/sues-2022-0007

9. Bakıcı, C., Aydın, E. (2020), Türkiye'de Kadın Çalışanların İş Yaşam Dengesini Şekillendirmede Ataerkilliǧin Rolü, Economics, Business and Organization Research, 2(2), 82-98.

10. Bal, M. D. (2014), Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliǧine Genel Bakış, KASHED, 1(1), 15-28.

11. Bardakçı, Ş., Oǧlak, S. (2020), Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliǧi Endeksi ve Türkiye, Toplumsal Politika Dergisi, 3(1), 71-90.

12. Bayeh, E. (2016), The Role of Empowering Women and Achieving Gender Equality to The Sustainable Development of Ethiopia, 2(1), 37-42. http://dx.doi.Org/10.1016/j.psrb.2016.09.013

13. Bektaş, H., Kablan, Z. (2023), Uzaktan Eǧitim Yoluyla Yürütülen Mesleki Gelişim Faaliyetlerine Yönelik Öǧretmen Görüşleri, AJER - Academia Eǧitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(1), 1-22.

14. Bergman, A., Gillberg, G. (2015), The Cabin Crew Blues: Middle-aged Cabin Attendants and Their Working Conditions, 5(4), 23-39.

15. Blundell, R., Costa Dias, M., Joyce, R., Xu, X. (2020), COVID-19 and Inequalities. Fiscal Studies, 41, 291-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-5890.12232

16. Bulut, D., Kızıldaǧ, D. (2017), Cinsiyet Ayrımcılıǧı ve Kadın İnsan Kaynakları Yöneticilerinin Kariyerleri Üzerindeki Etkileri, Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(2), 81-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.11611/yead.321237

17. Can, E. (2019), Öǧretmenlerin Meslekî Gelişimleri: Engeller ve Öneriler, Eǧitimde Nitel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(4), 1618-1650. doi:10.14689/Issn.2148-2624.1.7c.4s.l4m

18. Chung, H., Van Der Lippe, T. (2020), Flexible Working, Work-Life Balance, and Gender Equality: Introduction, Soc Indic Res, 151, 365-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/sll205-018-2025-x

19. Çetin, A. İ., Sevüktekin, P. M. (2014), Türkiye'de Kadın İstihdamının Geleceǧi. Paradoks Ekonomi Sosyoloji ve Politika Dergisi, 10(2), 52-83.

20. Doǧan, A. (2013), Türkiye'de Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliǧini Saǧlamaya Yönelik Hizmet Veren Kamu Kurumlan ve Hizmetleri Üzerine Bir Deǧerlendirme, Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(2), 75-95.

21. Doǧan, H. Ö., Piyal, B. (2017), Toplumsal Cinsiyetle İlişkili Sorunlar, Turk J Public Health, 15(2), 150-163.

22. Doǧrul, В. Ş., Tekeli, S. (2010), İş-Yaşam Dengesinin Saǧlanmasında Esnek Çalışma, Sosyal ve Beşerî Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 11-18.

23. Düǧer, Í. EL, İsgender, M. (1999), Ekonomik Kalkınma Stratejileri ve Bazı Ülke Deneyimleri, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3, 13-46.

24. Erikli, S. (2020), Çalışma Yaşamında Toplumsal Cinsiyet Ayrımcılıǧının Görünümü, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(1), 39-60.

25. Ezzedeen, S. R., Ritchey, K.G. (2009), Career advancement and family balance strategies of executive women, Gender in Management, 24(6), 388-411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17542410910980388

26. Gamez, A. E., Angeles, M. (2021). Women's Participation in the Labor Market. In Leal Filho, W., Marisa Azul, A., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (Eds.) Gender Equality. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95687-9_3

27. Gençtürk, Z. (2022), Türkiye'de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımını Etkileyen Faktörler, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 43, 361-394.

28. Gould, E., Schieder, J., Geier, K. (2016), What Is the Gender Pay Gap and Is It Real? The Complete Guide to How Women Are Paid Less Than Men and Why It Can't Be Explained Away, Retrieved from https://www.epi.org/publication/what-is-the-gender-pay-gap-and-is-it-real/ on 29 September 2023

29. Güler, H. N. (2020), Kadın Dostu Şirketlerin İnsan Kaynakları Uygulamaları, Kapadokya Akademik Bakış, 4(2), 1-19.

30. Gültekin, M. (2022), Türkiye'de Ücretli ve Ücretsiz Emek Ekseninde Kadınlarla Erkeklerin Hem Kendi İçlerindeki Hem de Kendi Aralarındaki Eşitsizlikler, Fe Dergisi Feminist Eleştiri, 14(2), 33-55. http://federgi.ankara.edu.tr/2022/12/12/28_3/

31. Halaçlı, B., Orhan, H. S. K. (2022), Türkiye'de Cinsiyete Dayalı Ücret Eşitsizliǧi: İşveren Yönlü Bir Analiz. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 61, 65-90. Doi: 10.18070/erciyesiibd.973090.

32. Hayrullahoǧlu, B. (2020), Kadınların İşgücüne Katılım Oranlarının Arttırılmasında Vergilendirmenin Rolü: Türkiye ve OECD Ülkeleri Açısından Bir Deǧerlendirme, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 66, 42-63.

33. İleri, Ü. (2016), Sosyal Politikalarda Kadın ve Cinsiyet Ayrımcılıǧı ile İlgili Başlıca Uluslararası ve Ulusal Hukuki Düzenlemeler, Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 5(12), 128-153.

34. Karaaslan, A., Tuncer, G. (2009), Uluslararası Rekabet Gücünün Artırılmasında Temel Devlet Politikaları, 26, 1-24.

35. Karatepe, S., Arıbaş, N. N. (2015), İş Hayatında Kadın Yöneticilere İlişkin Cinsiyet Ayrımcılıǧı: Türkiye İçin Bir Deǧerlendirme, Yasama Dergisi, 31, 7-23.

36. Korkmaz, A., Korkut, G. (2012), Türkiye'de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımının Belirleyicileri, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 41-65.

37. Korkmaz, D., Korkut, A. (2012), Türkiye'de Kadının İşgücüne Katılımının Belirleyicileri, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 41-65.

38. Korkmaz, M., Alacahan, N. D. (2013), Türkiye'de Formel Piyasaya Yönelmede Kadın İşgücü Arzı Ve Gsyh Etkileri: Ampirik Bir Çalışma, Turkish Studies, 8(7), 887-900. http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.5514

39. Kruk, M. E., Gage, A. D., Arsenault, C., Jordan, K., Leslie, H. H., Roder-DeWan, S., Adeyi, O., Barker, P., Daelmans, B., Doubova, S. V., English, M., Garcia-Elorrio, E., Guanais, F., Gureje, O., Hirschhorn, L. R., Jiang, L., Kelley, E., Lemango, E. T., Liljestrand, J., Malata, A., Pate, M. (2018), High-Quality Health Systems in the Sustainable Development Goals Era: Time for a Revolution. The Lancet. Global Health, 6(11), ell96-el252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(l 8)30386-3

40. Kutluay Şahin, D. (2022), Kadın İstihdamının Ekonomik Büyümeye Etkisi: Ampirik Bir Analiz, Uluslararası Ekonomi ve Yenilik Dergisi, 8(2), 277-288. http://dx.doi.org/! 0.20979/ueyd. 1135131

41. Mammen, K., Paxson, C. (2000), Women's Work and Economic Development, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(4), 141-164.

42. Nalbant, F., Korkmaz, T. (2016), Feminist Teori Temelinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliǧinin Türkiye Baǧlamında Deǧerlendirilmesi, AÇÜ Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(2), 165-186.

43. Okongwu, O. C. (2021), Are Laws the Appropriate Solution: The Need to Adopt Non-policy Measures in Aid of The Implementation of Sex Discrimination Laws in Nigeria. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 21(1), 26-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1358229120978915

44. Ostergaard, C. R., Timmermans, B., Kristinsson, K. (2011), Does a Different View Create Something New? The Effect of Employee Diversity on Innovation. Research Policy, 40, 500-509. http://dx.d0i.0rg/l0.1016/j.respol.2010.11.004.

45. Özçelik, F. K. (2016), Kadınlara Karşı Her Biçimiyle Ayrımcılıǧın Ortadan Kaldırılması Sözleşmesi'nin Usule ve Esasa İlişkin Düzenlemeleri ve Türk Anayasa Hukuku'na Yansımaları, 8, 317-340.

46. Öztürk, K. N., Nurdoǧan, А. K. (2021), İşgücü Piyasasında Kadınlara Yönelik Ayrimcilik ve Eşitsizliǧin Önlenmesinde Sosyal Güvenlik Sisteminin Etkisi, Fırat Üniversitesi Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 5(2), 141-166.

47. Rauniyar, G., Kanbur, R. (2010), Inclusive Growth and Inclusive Development: A Review and Synthesis of Asian Development Bank Literature, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 15(4), 455-469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2010.517680

48. Sadi, B., Karatepe, S. G. (2021), Eǧitimli Kadın İstihdamının Sorunlarına Yönelik Bir Araştırma, İstanbul Kent Üniversitesi İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(2), 21-50.

49. Sar, E. (2021), Çalışma Hayatında Kadın İstihdamı ve Türkiye'de Yansımaları. Safran Kültür ve Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(1), 20-40.

50. Savaşkan, E. (2019), Kadın Yöneticiler Açısından Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliǧi Üzerine Kavramsal Bir Çalışma, AÇÜ Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(2), 1-23.

51. Serei, H., Özdemir, B. S. (2017), Türkiye'de Kadın İstihdamı ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi, Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(3), 132-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.! 161 l/yead.310569

52. Shagvaliyeva, S., Yazdanifard, R. (2014), Impact of Flexible Working Hours on Work-Life Balance, American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 4(1), 20-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2014.41004.

53. Soysal, A. (2010), Türkiye'de Kadın Girişimciler: Engeller ve Fırsatlar Baǧlamında Bir Deǧerlendirme, Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 65(1), 83-114.

54. Şahin, S., Bayhan, A. C. (2019), Türkiye'de Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitsizliǧinin Ekonomik Boyutu, Lectio Socialis, 4(1), 59-74.

55. Şenel, A., Sevim, U. (2022), Kadın Girişimciliǧi Üzerine Bir Araştırma: Giresun Örneǧi, Journal of Emerging Economies and Policy, 7(2), 171-185.

56. Teague, L. J. (2015), Higher Education Plays Critical Role in Society: More Women Leaders Can Make a Difference, Forum on Public Policy Online, Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ 1091521 on 28 September 2023

57. Terjesen, S., Sealy, R., Singh, V. (2009), Women Directors on Corporate Boards: A Review and Research Agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17, 320-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.! 11 1/j. 1467-8683.2009.00742.x

58. Tilev, F. (2018), Esnek Çalışma ve Kadın İstihdamı, Fırat Üniversitesi İİBF Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 121-150.

59. TUIK. (2016), İstatistiklerle Kadın, 2015, Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index7pHstatistiklerle-Kadin-2015-21519 on 01 October 2023

60. TŰIK. (2022a), İstatistiklerle Kadın, 2015, Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index7pHstatistiklerle-Kadin-2021-45635 on 01 October 2023

61. TUIK. (2022b), İşgücü İstatistikleri, Kasım 2022, Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=%C4%B0%C5%9Fg%C3%BCc%C3%BC-%C4%B0statistikleri-Kas%C4%Blm-2022-49384&dil=l on 01 October 2023

62. TUIK. (2023), İstatistiklerle Kadın, 2022, Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index7pHstatistiklerle-Kadin-2022-49668 on 01 October 2023

63. Türeli, N. Ş., Dolmaci, N. (2013), İş Yaşamında Kadın Çalışana Yönelik Ayrımcı Bakış Açısı ve Mobbing Üzerine Ampirik Bir Çalışma, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 83-104.

64. Wakefield, M. A., Loken, В., Hornik, R. C. (2010), Use of Mass Media Campaigns to Change Health Behaviour. Lancet (London, England), 376(9748), 1261-1271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60809-4

65. World Economic Forum. (2017), Global Gender Gap Report 2017, Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2017.pdf on 01 October 2023

66. World Economic Forum. (2023), Global Gender Gap Report 2023, Retrieved from https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf on 01 October 2023

67. Yavuz, E., Uzun, A. (2019), Türkiye'de 2000-2018 Yılları Arasında Cam Tavan Kavramı ile İlgili Çalışmaların İncelenmesi ve Yorumlanması, AVRASYA Uluslararası Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(16), 697-718.

68. Yerlikaya, B. (2020), Cinsiyetli Bir Küresel Kriz Mi?: Covid-19 Salgını Gölgesinde Ekonomide Küresel Cinsiyet Eşitsizliǧi, Trakya Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi e-Dergisi, 11(1), 62-81.

69. Yıldırım, E., Gül, H. (2021), Uluslararası Kalkınma Politikaları ve Kadınların Güçlendirilmesi Üzerine Bir Deǧerlendirme, Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 10(1), 679-695.

70. Yıldız, N. (2020), Uluslararası Kuruluşlar Açısından Kadının Güçlendirilmesine Bakış, HAKİŞ Uluslararası Emek ve Toplum Dergisi, 9(25), 224-245.