1. Introduction
UNESCO Member States adopted the Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach to integrate heritage conservation with sustainable development in historic urban areas. The HUL approach recognizes cities as carriers of architectural and artistic achievements, collective memory, and dynamic organisms that continuously evolve [1]. The HUL approach promotes a holistic view of the relationship between historic districts and their ecological surroundings [2]. By integrating local plants, traditional villages like those in Southern Anhui can maintain their authenticity and cultural continuity while fostering sustainable development [3]. Additionally, applying the HUL approach in cities such as Muntok and Banjarmasin, Indonesia, encourages multi-stakeholder collaboration to promote heritage and socio-cultural practices. This can include the preservation and utilization of local plant species as catalysts for sustainable development [4]. This integration of local plants not only enhances the aesthetic value of urban landscapes but also contributes to the overall well-being of communities living in these heritage sites.
The anthropological landscape relies on plants as living artifacts of local history and culture. Trees are significant assets, landmarks, and religious, social, and symbolic elements (Read, 2000) [5]. Plants stimulate the senses and foster a connection to the place (Robinson, 2004) [6]. They symbolize unity, continuity, social structure, and holiness due to their stature, longevity, vitality, and regenerative power [7].
Chiang Mai, the capital of the Lanna Kingdom (1296–1768), is located in northern Thailand. As a tributary state of Thailand from 1774 to 1899, it lies on flat ground along the foothills of the sacred Doi Suthep Mountain, sloping from west to east over a vast river basin [8]. In 1977, UNESCO designated Doi Suthep Mountain a Biosphere Reserve due to its diverse fern and flowering plant species. The abundance of indigenous plant species in Chiang Mai has enabled inhabitants to integrate many plants into their daily lives and religious beliefs, allowing their culture to flourish harmoniously.
The Lanna Kingdom adopted Theravada Buddhism in the second half of the twelfth century [9]. Lanna’s culture and Buddhism have coexisted and have had a significant impact. Theravada Buddhist principles value natural environments as conducive to meditation [10]. Buddhists recognize trees as providing shelter, nourishment, and protection for humans and animals [11]. This concept is distinctly reflected in the landscape of a Lanna temple, which serves as a repository of plant specimens from both the time of Buddha and the present, used for the temple’s preservation [12].
Vegetation is crucial to the cultural identity of Thai communities. The Kaloeng Ethnic Group in Sakon Nakhon relies on the Don Pu Ta Forest for medicinal plants, shaping their traditions and healthcare practices [13]. Historical murals in temples such as Phumin and Nongbua in Nan depict plant species in daily life, reflecting regional cultural values and informing current landscape design [14]. These examples demonstrate that vegetation sustains communities and significantly contributes to cultural identity and practices.
The presence of vegetation in Lanna temples can be paralleled with historical examples like the Maya culture, where plants played significant roles in daily life and rituals. The Classic Maya village of Joya de Ceren showcased the importance of plants in various contexts, offering insights into botanical resource management and spatial relationships within gardens and households [15]. Furthermore, the symbolic significance of trees like the ceiba among the ancient Maya and the live oak in Louisiana highlights how vegetation can become central to cultural landscapes, serving as historic landmarks and adding character to the environment [16]. These parallels emphasize the relationship between vegetation, culture, and the built environment in different historical contexts.
Modernization has frequently altered the original layout of cultural landscapes. For instance, the Thai government’s temple development program in 1981 increased competition among Lanna temples [17]. Consequently, concrete pavements have replaced lawns and sand courts in Lanna temples [18,19,20]. This transformation has affected the quantity and quality of the Lanna temple landscape, irrespective of its cultural value. New religious buildings have come to dominate sacred trees, and many local plants have been removed without consideration for pruning, transplanting, or their historical value due to potential structural harm caused by their branches or roots [21]. These changes, which seem like heritage destruction, are part of a broader trend of rapid urban development and societal changes resulting from urbanization, which are eroding the unique patterns of urban livelihood and culture. This neglects the value of historical urban communities and their traditional practices [22]. Additionally, the impact of urbanization on spirituality and changing lifestyles is altering cultural perceptions and traditions, affecting the population’s spiritual connection to local plants [23]. The loss of traditional ecological knowledge among local communities due to urbanization further exacerbates the situation, as these communities lose vital resources that support their subsistence and livelihoods. This loss ultimately endangers the conservation of valuable traditional knowledge related to local plants.
This study explores the integration of landscape plants as green heritage with Lanna’s urban identity through the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) framework, emphasizing the preservation of cultural heritage alongside sustainable urban development. It examines the characteristics of plant materials within the Lanna temples’ landscape, aiming to elucidate both tangible and intangible aspects of the vegetation structure and enhance the understanding and valuation of planting design in Lanna sacred spaces. The findings may significantly contribute to the future management of Lanna temple landscapes. The study involves community engagement, educational programs, and adaptive management strategies. The discussion highlights the role of heritage trees and local vegetation in maintaining cultural continuity and advocates for sustainable landscape management to enhance biodiversity and aesthetics. This approach balances preserving Chiang Mai’s cultural heritage with accommodating urban development, thereby enhancing the city’s aesthetic, ecological, and cultural value. Consequently, efforts to preserve and document ethnobotanical knowledge and prioritize culturally important plant species are essential in mitigating the risks posed by urbanization and sustaining the rich cultural heritage intertwined with local plants in Chiang Mai Old City.
2. Study Area
The study focuses on the Chiang Mai Old City area at the center of Chiang Mai Province. This area has a square shape covering 1.6 square kilometers and is surrounded by a historic city moat (18.790° N, 98.987° E). Chiang Mai served as the capital of the Lanna Kingdom from 1296 to 1768, a tributary state of Siam from 1774 to 1899, and has been a second-level subdivision of Thailand since 1933. Located 700 km north of Bangkok, Chiang Mai sits 310 m above sea level. The region has an annual rainfall of approximately 1200 mm and an average temperature of 27–28 °C. The climate is characterized by a wet season (April to November) and a dry season (December to March), with most rainfall occurring between May and October. This investigation was conducted at 38 Lanna temples situated within the Old City area (see Figure 1).
3. Methodology
This study employs a multi-criteria approach, integrating concepts from landscape studies and urban forestry, based on tangible and intangible elements as per the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) framework. Temple layouts were zoned by key buildings such as the main pavilion and the pagoda, which serve as the center points for discussing plant materials in each area. The projection lines were then set to the temple’s land boundary (see Figure 2). Temple zones were categorized into the front, side, and back zones.
A comprehensive ground survey was conducted to document the location, taxonomy (including trees, shrubs, ground covers, climbing plants, epiphytes, and aquatic plants), and growth status (ground or container) of plants. Plant data were cataloged through systematic field surveys, with species identified using field guides, academic literature, and expert consultations. Data collection utilized digital tools and was compiled into a research report, which underwent verification through peer reviews and cross-referencing with other studies. Statistical analysis revealed significant interactions between plant types, highlighting their coexistence and mutual influence within the temple ecosystems. The utilization of plants was documented through structured interviews with purposively sampled participants, including monks, temple caretakers, and long-term residents of over 20 years in the study area. Transcripts were analyzed for recurring themes using qualitative data analysis tools, and the findings were corroborated with academic publications. The comparison of ancient maps with photographs was conducted by studying the oldest available maps and comparing them with corresponding historical photographs from the National Archives of Thailand, aligning with the locations depicted on those maps. Data collection methods included GIS mapping, field notes, sketches, and photographs. All collected data were analyzed and processed using ArcGIS 2.5 and Microsoft Excel 2016.
4. Results of the Study
4.1. Tangible Elements of Landscape Plants in Chiang Mai Old City
4.1.1. Plants as Heritage
The multiple benefits of trees in enhancing the livability of cities have been well-documented [24], but they face significant growth challenges, especially in compact urban environments. Few urban trees can continue to thrive in the urban fabric for over a century [25]. The notable remnant trees that do survive are often respected as heritage trees, referred to as ancient, champion, historical, legacy, old, precious, outstanding, valuable, or veteran trees [26]. Heritage trees hold lasting values that provide insights into our culture by offering a context for community identity, growth, and contrast in our modern world. Similar to buildings, trees are integral components of the places we inhabit, making significant contributions to the health and well-being of our communities and the broader environment [27]. They reflect the historical patterns and processes that have shaped our natural and urban environments over time. Heritage trees may represent the last vestiges of former natural or cultural landscapes, symbolizing environmental, social, and economic histories [28].
This study identified four heritage trees within the temple areas of Chiang Mai Old City (Figure 3) that are integral to the city’s establishment. Bodhi Trees (Ficus religiosa), well-documented as being planted by King Mengrai the Great in 1296 B.C., were found in records of The Yonok Chronicle (460 AD). Originally from Sri Lanka, these trees were planted by King Mengrai in three temples during the same period to worship Buddhism: Wat Phra Chao Mengrai, Wat Umong Maha Thera Chan, and Wat Chiang Man. Additionally, a Yang Tree (Dipterocarpus alatus) was found, planted by King Kawila in 1796 AD after the liberation from the Burmese and the restoration of Chiang Mai. This tree, located in the area of Wat Chedi Luang temple, has been designated as the city’s botanical landmark.
4.1.2. Plants and Urban Skyline
Plants play a crucial role in shaping urban skylines and contributing to the visual appeal of cities. The presence of distinct urban plants, such as large trees in Chiang Mai Old City, not only adds to the aesthetic value but also helps create a unique sense of place and identity for the city [29,30]. In addition to their aesthetic contribution, an urban skyline with plant communities has been shown to have ecological benefits, aesthetic value, and positive social impacts, especially in commercial complexes, enhancing the overall beauty and sustainability of urban areas [31]. Furthermore, incorporating vegetation, such as shrubs and trees, at a high visual level in urban spaces has been linked to positive psychological and physiological responses, highlighting the importance of green spaces in modern cities for stress reduction and well-being [32]. By strategically placing plants in urban landscapes, cities can enhance their skyline aesthetics, cultural significance, and overall livability.
The relationship between plants and the urban skyline of Chiang Mai Old City also reflects the experiences of local artists. The study found a significant correlation between landscape plants and mural paintings, with murals depicting plants as artistic interpretations of real urban vegetation (see Figure 4). These artistic representations can evoke awe and appreciation for nature’s beauty by seamlessly integrating real plants into the surrounding environment. By incorporating local characteristics into murals, artists make these artworks more connected and relevant to their location, enhancing the cultural resonance and visual coherence of the urban landscape. This integration not only enriches the aesthetic appeal of the city but also reinforces the cultural identity and historical continuity of Chiang Mai Old City.
4.1.3. Plants and Urban Space
Temple grounds in Lanna serve as vital communal spaces where the local population engages in a myriad of activities, from religious rituals to daily social interactions, shaping their cultural experiences [33]. The physical environment of these temple grounds, adorned with diverse plant elements and landscaped features, holds immense cultural and historical significance, symbolizing the rich heritage of the Lanna people. Specific plants and landscape elements on these grounds create strong visual and emotional connections for community members, intertwining with their collective memories and experiences, thus forming enduring images of the place. The presence of these plants not only enhances the aesthetic appeal of the temple grounds but also plays a crucial role in shaping the social fabric and cultural identity of the Lanna community.
This study found evidence in ancient maps and photographs indicating that the characteristics of landscape plants in temple grounds and streetscapes in Chiang Mai Old City (Figure 5) have maintained a consistent sense over time. This continuity suggests a deep-rooted cultural importance of these plants and landscapes, contributing to preserving the city’s historical identity. The plants in temples encourage social interaction and community connection, as memories of shared experiences become intertwined with the presence of vegetation and the urban environment. For instance, the shade of large trees creates comfortable spaces for people to gather, while flowering plants add aesthetic value and create a pleasant atmosphere. These elements not only beautify the surroundings but also foster a sense of community by providing common spaces for social activities.
4.1.4. Plants and Urban Scenery
The urban plants in Chiang Mai Old City play a crucial role in shaping the visual character and atmosphere of the city, contributing to its botanical diversity and ecological value [34]. Exotic plants, introduced through historical trade and cultural exchanges, alongside native species, create a rich tapestry of vegetation that enhances the urban landscape [35]. These plants exhibit seasonal changes, with local plants blossoming in summer, turning lush green during the rainy season, and shedding leaves in winter, providing a dynamic and engaging environment for residents and visitors [36]. The strategic placement of plants enhances specific views, with tall trees framing vistas and flowering shrubs adding color and texture to public spaces, highlighting architectural features and adding to the visual appeal of the urban scenery.
The study documented a total of 32,899 plants within the Lanna temples of Chiang Mai Old City, representing a diverse range of species from various geographical origins. The distribution of plants by origin is detailed in Table 1, highlighting the diversity and composition of the temple landscapes. The largest proportion of plants (43.8%) originated from the Paleotropical region, indicating a significant influence of tropical flora in the temple landscapes. This is followed by plants from the Neotropical region, which comprise 23.4% of the total. Native species account for 30.0%, showing the importance and prevalence of indigenous flora in maintaining the cultural and ecological heritage of the temples.
Smaller proportions of plants come from the Australian (1.6%), Boreal (1.4%), and Capensic (0.7%) regions. Although these categories represent a smaller fraction of the total plant population, they contribute to the overall biodiversity and aesthetic value of the temple landscapes. This diverse plant composition reflects the historical and ongoing interactions between Chiang Mai and other regions through trade, cultural exchanges, and migration. The presence of both native and exotic species highlights the dynamic nature of the temple landscapes, where cultural heritage and biodiversity are intertwined.
The significant number of native plants underscores the value of preserving indigenous species, which are crucial for maintaining the ecological balance and cultural identity of the region. Conversely, the inclusion of exotic plants demonstrates the adaptability and openness of the Lanna culture to external influences, enriching the local flora with varied aesthetic and functional attributes. In conclusion, the documented plant diversity in Lanna temples showcases a rich tapestry of botanical heritage, where native and exotic species coexist harmoniously, enhancing the cultural, aesthetic, and ecological significance of Chiang Mai Old City.
4.1.5. Plants in Landscapes Zoning and Functional Distribution
The significance of native plants in landscaping transcends mere aesthetics, reflecting individual creativity and cultural background [37,38]. Utilizing native plants adapted to local conditions not only ensures their sustainability but also highlights the profound connection between humans and the environment [39]. The preference for exotic plants over natives underscores a lack of knowledge and market availability, highlighting the need to raise public awareness and promote indigenous species for landscaping [40]. Furthermore, the concept of cultural landscapes emphasizes preserving traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous plant species, as seen in temple landscapes in Chiang Mai. Here, native plants fulfill various roles, including medicinal, culinary, and ceremonial purposes, underscoring the intricate relationship between humans and their surroundings [41]. This holistic approach to landscaping not only enhances environmental beauty but also preserves cultural heritage and ecological balance. In Chiang Mai, people have developed deep knowledge about native plants in temple landscapes, utilizing them for medicine, food, and offerings. Significant interactions between Lanna temple zones and plant types, growth, and local use functions were found (p < 0.001, further emphasizing the importance of native plants in cultural and ecological contexts
The data from this study indicate significant interactions between plant types, their growth environments, and their local use functions within the Lanna temple zones. Shrubs dominate the landscape, with 26,728 shrubs (81.2% of the total number of plants) primarily concentrated in the side zones (42.9%). Trees, totaling 3690 (11.2%), are also concentrated in the side zones (5.5%), suggesting that these areas provide suitable conditions for tree growth, such as more space and light. Aquatic plants (1356 or 4.1%), climbers (432 or 1.3%), and epiphytes (693 or 2.1%) are present in smaller proportions but still show a preference for the side zones (1.8%, 0.5%, and 0.9%, respectively). This distribution suggests that temple landscaping prioritizes the visual and structural benefits of shrubs and trees, with other plant types contributing to biodiversity and specific functional uses (Table 2).
Container plants are significantly used in the side zones, totaling 9549 plants (29.1%), with 16.1% located in the side zones. This preference for container plants in these areas may be due to the flexibility they offer in design and maintenance, allowing for easy relocation and specialized care. Ground cover plants have a higher overall presence, with 23,350 plants (71.0%), predominantly in the side zones (35.6%). The higher proportion of ground plants indicates a strong reliance on traditional planting methods, which are likely more sustainable and easier to manage in the long term.
The data from Table 3, identifying plant materials according to the Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) book series, reveal a strategic distribution and functional use of plants across different temple zones (front, side, back). Ornamental plants are overwhelmingly predominant, making up nearly 93% of the total plants, with the highest concentration in the side zones (48.0%), followed by the back (23.9%) and front zones (21.0%). This distribution emphasizes aesthetics and decorative purposes, particularly in the side zones, which are likely prominent areas for visitors and ceremonies. Edible plants constitute a significant portion (32.0%) of the plant materials, with the highest concentration in the side zones (15.6%), suggesting a practical use of space for food purposes, possibly for temple residents or offerings. Medicinal plants represent a substantial portion (42.7%) of the total plants, crucial for traditional medicinal practices and are primarily concentrated in the side zones (21.1%), with significant numbers also in the back (12.5%) and front zones (9.1%). Applicable plants, used for functional purposes, make up a smaller portion (5.5%) and are more evenly distributed, with a slight preference for the side zones, indicating balanced use across the temple areas. Cultural plants, significant for religious and cultural practices, account for 19.6% of the plant materials, with the side zones again showing the highest concentration (11.6%).
The data in Table 4 categorize plant materials used in the landscape of Lanna temples based on the Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) book series, with an emphasis on the zoning of these plants within temple grounds. The categorization divides the plants into several functional groups: ornamental, edible, applicable, cultural, and medicinal, and further subdivides them according to their location in the temple landscape: front, side, and back. This analysis offers insights into how plant functions are distributed across different zones of the temple landscape.
The zoning analysis of plant materials in Lanna temple landscapes reveals distinct patterns in the distribution of various plant functions. Ornamental plants are prominently featured across all zones, with the highest concentration on the sides of the temple grounds. Foliage plants are particularly abundant, with 10,391 plants (31.6%) located on the sides, compared to 5803 plants (15.5%) in the front and 5233 plants (15.9%) at the back. Flowering plants show a similar distribution, with 5344 plants (16.2%) on the sides, 1794 plants (5.5%) in the front, and 2602 plants (7.9%) at the back. Ornamental fruit plants are sparsely distributed but present in all zones, enhancing the aesthetic appeal uniformly across the temple landscape.
Edible plants demonstrate a notable zoning pattern, with vegetables being the most significant category. The side zones of the temple host 4255 vegetable plants (12.9%), followed by 2812 plants (8.5%) at the back, and 1673 plants (5.1%) in the front. Fruit plants, totaling 1581 (4.8%), and spice plants, totaling 202 (0.6%), are less prevalent but still distributed across all zones, reflecting practical use. The side zones are favored for edible plants, possibly due to better sunlight or soil conditions.
Medicinal plants are highly concentrated in the side and back zones, with 6930 plants (21.1%) on the sides and 4122 plants (12.5%) at the back. The front zone has fewer medicinal plants at 2999 (9.1%). The distribution suggests areas with less foot traffic and more privacy are preferred for cultivating medicinal plants, which may require specific growing conditions or protection.
Cultural plants, used for traditions and religious purposes, show a preference for the side zones. There are 3656 plants (11.1%) used for tradition on the sides, compared to 1384 plants (4.2%) at the back and 999 plants (3.0%) in the front. Plants used for religious purposes are fewer, totaling 411 (1.2%) across all zones, but the side zones host the majority. This suggests side areas of temples are significant for cultural practices and events. Applicable plants, such as those used for wood and dye, are less prevalent but present in all zones. Wood plants total 1041 (3.2%), and dye plants account for 770 (2.3%), with a distribution favoring the sides and back. Fiber plants are minimally represented, with only 5 plants.
The zoning analysis highlights the thoughtful planning and multifunctionality in Lanna temple landscapes. Ornamental and edible plants are most prevalent on the sides, reflecting a balance of aesthetic and practical uses. Medicinal plants are concentrated in quieter zones, emphasizing their importance and need for specific conditions. Cultural plants are significant in side areas, supporting traditional and religious activities. Applicable plants, though less frequent, are distributed to minimize interference with other functions. This strategic use of plant materials underscores the integration of aesthetic, practical, and cultural elements. The concentration of various plant types in the side zones suggests these areas are pivotal in temple landscaping, likely due to their visibility and accessibility for both practical and ceremonial purposes.
This study found that ornamental and cultural plants within the temple landscapes are actively utilized in various rituals conducted within the temples and surrounding communities. Edible plants are considered communal resources, available for sharing and consumption by all community members. While medicinal plants and applicable plants were present in the temple landscapes, interviews with monks and stakeholders revealed that these plants are no longer employed for contemporary medicinal or practical purposes. Instead, they are maintained for their historical significance and traditional uses from ancient times. This shift underscores a transition from active usage to the symbolic preservation of botanical heritage within these sacred spaces. This holistic approach to landscaping enhances the visual appeal and cultural heritage of the temples, ensures ecological sustainability, and preserves traditional knowledge, reflecting the deep-rooted relationship between the community and their environment. The use of diverse plant types and growing methods ensures the temple landscapes are functional and aesthetically pleasing, supporting the community’s diverse needs while honoring traditional practices.
4.2. Intangible Elements of Landscape Plants in Chiang Mai Old City
4.2.1. Relation of Plants and City Festival
This study examines the integral role of plants and city festivals in reflecting and sustaining the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the people of Chiang Mai. Central to this examination is the community’s strong belief in animism and naturalism, particularly their reverence for the spirit of the city and the sacred city pillar, symbolized by the Yang tree (Dipterocarpus alatus) [42]. This belief system is embedded in the city’s history and culture, where local beliefs and religious elements have historically influenced urban design to promote prosperity and well-being [43].
A notable example is the Yang tree, regarded as a heritage tree of Chiang Mai Old City. Historically, it served as a crucial landmark for merchant caravans, guiding traders and travelers. Now considered a sacred tree, it embodies the spiritual and cultural significance attributed to it by the local population. The city pillar and the Yang tree are central to a festival held in late May or early June according to the lunar calendar, celebrating the city’s heritage and spiritual beliefs (see Figure 6).
This festival demonstrates the integration of animistic and naturalistic beliefs into Chiang Mai’s urban fabric. The reverence for the Yang tree and the city pillar reflects a continuity of tradition, where historical landmarks and natural elements are venerated, playing a significant role in community identity and cohesion. The annual festival celebrating these symbols is a testament to the enduring significance of these beliefs in the lives of Chiang Mai’s residents. This study aims to elucidate the relationship between plant life and cultural festivals in sustaining the spiritual and communal fabric of Chiang Mai, providing insights into the maintenance and adaptation of cultural and spiritual practices in modern urban settings.
4.2.2. Plants and Place Name
The significance of place names related to plants in Chiang Mai reflects the intricate relationship between culture, history, and the natural environment [44]. These names not only carry practical meanings but also embody spiritual values, offering visitors profound insights into the region’s cultural heritage [45]. The toponyms associated with plant life in Chiang Mai showcase a blend of human-nature interactions over time, highlighting the enduring connection between the local community and its surroundings. By delving into the etymology and historical context of these place names, one can unravel the deep-rooted intertwining of nature and culture in Chiang Mai’s urban narrative, emphasizing the rich tapestry of traditions and beliefs that shape the region’s identity. An examination of 2066 village names in Chiang Mai Province revealed that 171 plant species are connected with vegetation in 743 villages. Most plants in village names are trees, followed by shrubs, climber plants, aquatic plants, ground cover, and epiphytes. The function of plants in village names is mostly medicinal, followed by edible plants.
The data presented in Table 5 highlight the distribution of plant life forms in the names of villages in Chiang Mai, providing significant insights for toponymic studies. Trees are the most prominent life form, with 114 species accounting for 64.33% of the total, followed by shrubs with 37 species representing 21.64%. Climber plants comprise 14 species, making up 8.19%, while aquatic plants have 6 species, constituting 3.51%. Ground cover and epiphytic plants each have 2 species, amounting to 1.17%, respectively. This breakdown underscores the dominance of arboreal species in village names, reflecting their crucial role in the region’s cultural and environmental landscape.
The prevalence of trees and shrubs in village names suggests their significant role in the local communities’ daily lives, traditions, and historical contexts. This indicates that these plants are likely integral to traditional medicine, food, and other cultural practices. The presence of climber plants, aquatic plants, ground cover, and epiphytic plants, although less prominent, highlights the diverse plant life that has been integrated into the region’s toponyms. This rich botanical heritage points to a nuanced interaction between the local populace and their natural environment. Overall, the data in Table 5 emphasize the intricate connection between the natural world and cultural identity in Chiang Mai, with trees and shrubs being particularly significant. This understanding enhances the appreciation of the cultural and environmental landscape of Chiang Mai, offering deeper insights into the historical and practical significance of plant species in village naming practices.
4.2.3. Plants in Social Events and Traditions
The data in Figure 7 underscore the significant role that flowers and plant species play in Lanna cultural and ceremonial practices in Chiang Mai Old City. The study identified 67 plant species used across 13 different rituals, demonstrating the deep integration of floral elements into various aspects of community life. Notably, the New Year Ceremony has the highest usage of plant species, with 23 different types symbolizing renewal and blessings. Ceremonies such as the City Pillar Offering, Life Prolonging Ceremony, Agricultural Ceremony, and Blessing Ceremony each involve many plant species, reflecting their cultural importance and the community’s connection to nature.
The varied use of plant species across these rituals highlights how flowers and plants are deeply embedded in the cultural fabric of Lanna society. They serve aesthetic, symbolic, and spiritual purposes, representing a profound connection to the natural and spiritual worlds. The study of these 67 plant species across 13 rituals provides insights into the cultural and ceremonial importance of flora in Lanna traditions, emphasizing the intricate relationship between the people of Chiang Mai and their natural surroundings. This extensive use of plants in ceremonies underscores the rich botanical heritage and the community’s deep-seated cultural identity intertwined with the natural environment.
The Lanna culture’s calendar system is intricately influenced by the lunar system, reflecting the community’s close connection to natural cycles. Each year, the Lanna Calendar designates significant plants, which include the Plant hosted by the rice spirit, the Plant hosted by the guardian spirit, the Noble of Tree, the Noble Flower, and the Superior Plant of the Year. These designated plants hold cultural and spiritual significance, with specific customs associated with them. For instance, when a plant is proclaimed important for the year, the Lanna people traditionally avoid pruning or causing harm to that species, demonstrating their reverence and protective practices toward nature.
In this study, an investigation into the ancient Lanna calendar revealed the involvement of 52 plant species in the annual proclamations. This includes 32 trees, 16 shrubs, and 4 ground cover plants, each playing a unique role in the cultural and spiritual life of the Lanna people. These findings highlight the rich botanical heritage of the Lanna culture and the intricate ways in which plant species are woven into their annual rituals and traditions. This practice not only underscores the community’s deep-seated respect for nature but also illustrates the continuity of cultural practices that maintain ecological balance and promote biodiversity.
Lanna floral motifs, commonly found in religious architecture in Northern Thailand, symbolize a profound link between local beliefs and the surrounding natural world. These intricate floral designs not only serve as decorative elements but also hold substantial cultural and spiritual significance, reflecting the community’s deep respect for nature and its incorporation into spiritual customs. Lanna art forms, such as Flora patterns, showcase the importance of these motifs in the cultural heritage, emphasizing the preservation and promotion of Lanna artistic traditions. Furthermore, tourism development guidelines proposed for the Lanna region underscore the value of architectural heritage in attracting visitors and enhancing cultural tourism experiences, emphasizing the need for improvements in accessibility and infrastructure to further showcase these cultural treasures. In a comprehensive survey of 38 temples in Chiang Mai Old City, researchers identified an impressive 61,790 pieces of floral motifs. These motifs were meticulously categorized into 23 distinct types, illustrating the diversity and richness of the Lanna artistic tradition (Figure 8).
The extensive use of floral motifs in temple architecture underscores the importance of nature in Lanna culture. Each motif type embodies specific symbolic meanings and is carefully chosen to enhance the spiritual ambiance of the religious structures. This practice highlights how art and nature are intertwined in the expression of local beliefs and values. The findings from the survey provide valuable insights into the aesthetic and symbolic dimensions of Lanna religious art, emphasizing the role of natural elements in shaping cultural identity and spiritual life. This intricate relationship between nature and spirituality in Lanna architecture not only preserves traditional artistic practices but also reinforces the community’s enduring connection to its natural surroundings.
4.2.4. Plants in Local Literature
Plants significantly shape the character of a place and foster connections between inhabitants and their natural environment (Loumou & Giourga, 2003) [46]. They engage the full range of human senses and evoke various emotions in different spaces (Robinson, 2004) [6]. In Lanna culture, literature frequently features real-life plants, enriching the mood and depth of narratives. This study examined 17 literary works written between 1357 and 1952 AD, identifying 141 mentions of plants and documenting 82 species (Table 6). The inclusion of plants in these works not only enhances storytelling but also reflects the community’s intrinsic bond with nature.
In Lanna literature, plants play a significant role in describing scenery and indicating locations. This study reveals how plants contribute to forming the notion of regional identity, emphasizing the connection between plants and cultural heritage. Specific plants are considered essential in reflecting the cultural landscape of the Lanna people. The analysis showed that trees were the most frequently mentioned, with 40 instances describing scenery and 54 indicating locations. Shrubs also played a significant role, particularly in indicating locations, with 16 mentions. Although less frequently mentioned, aquatic plants, climbers, and epiphytic plants added to the descriptive richness of the texts. Ground cover plants, noted in four instances for indicating locations, were not used to describe scenery. This distribution highlights the versatility of plant references in Lanna literature, where trees and shrubs predominantly set scenes and provide locational context, illustrating the deep integration of flora in cultural narratives.
4.2.5. Plants in Local Wisdom and Belief
The traditional belief of the Lanna people is that human beings are an integral part of nature and should live in harmony with it, recognizing and valuing each other’s existence. They use wisdom to adapt to the various conditions of their natural surroundings. To study plants according to Lanna beliefs, important and relevant documents were reviewed, resulting in the classification of plants into 12 groups. These groups are organized into eight compass directions and four special categories: specific plant species for a front yard, plants for positive omens, plants for magic suppression, and plants with negative omens (Figure 9).
The findings recommend that plants with positive omens be cultivated in residential areas, primarily on the western side, as they are believed to bring good fortune. Conversely, plants with negative portents are advised against due to the potential threats they pose to the environment. For instance, certain trees with rapid growth could damage or collapse houses. This classification and strategic planting underscore the Lanna people’s integration of nature’s wisdom into their cultural practices and daily lives.
5. Discussion
5.1. The Role of Plants in Shaping the Landscape Character
Plants shape spatial experiences through human sensory perception (Goldfinger, 1941). Lanna temples use landscape plants to enhance focus on the main pavilion and pagoda [12]. Trimmed shrubs, colorful foliage, and flowers emphasize temple architecture. Dense canopy trees visually separate the temple’s sacred space, while shrubs under the canopy control visuals and designate sacred places. Tall trees in the back provide neutral backgrounds, accentuating key buildings and creating visual links between the front and back vegetation.
The research revealed several findings: ornamental plants dominate Lanna temple landscapes more than anticipated, with foliage and flowers making up 62.9% and 29.6% of the vegetation, respectively. The significant presence of medicinal plants (42.7%) reflects the temples’ historical role as community healthcare centers [47,48]. The strategic use of tall trees in the back zones creates visual harmony. The cultivation of edible fruit trees, not for commercial purposes but as an extension of Buddhist principles of compassion, reveals an intersection of religious beliefs and horticultural practices.
Recognizing plants as integral parts of cultural heritage is crucial for preserving natural and historical richness [49]. These natural elements, alongside material monuments, contribute significantly to the landscape’s value and aesthetic appeal, impacting viewers and passersby [50]. Natural monuments, including various plant species, hold great historical, scenic, and scientific value. Moreover, the visual impact of cultural and historical monuments is heavily influenced by surrounding vegetation, emphasizing the importance of considering plants in landscape design practices.
Currently, the management plan for urban green spaces in Chiang Mai, particularly concerning plants as cultural heritage, remains undefined. Each large, old tree is managed by its respective landowner, often without adequate arboricultural knowledge. Landscape vegetation within residential areas is partially preserved in accordance with traditional concepts, beliefs, and cultural practices. However, certain aspects have evolved due to fashion trends, leading to the introduction of numerous exotic ornamental plants available in the market. Furthermore, the green spaces overseen by the municipal government lack specific guidelines regarding culturally, traditionally, and historically appropriate species for planting.
Implementing strategies from this study to protect green heritage, such as recognizing and managing appropriate landscape plant species that affect cultural heritage monuments, is essential for safeguarding their integrity and historical significance. Acknowledging and preserving landscape plants as integral components of cultural heritage is vital for maintaining the holistic heritage landscape.
5.2. Plants and Sense of Place of Chiang Mai Old City
This study underscores the impact of plants on the sense of place within Lanna temple landscapes. The Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach emphasizes integrating heritage conservation with sustainable development, recognizing cities as evolving entities maintaining their cultural and historical identities. This approach supports the idea that heritage, including tangible and intangible elements, catalyzes urban development, promoting environmental, economic, social, and cultural growth.
Plants in urban areas are integral to the cultural and social fabric of the community. Significant trees, such as those in Lanna temples, enhance city livability by providing aesthetic, ecological, and psychological benefits. These trees act as living artifacts, embodying local history, cultural values, and religious significance, fostering a strong connection between people and their environment and reinforcing a sense of place.
Chiang Mai exemplifies how indigenous plant species are integrated into daily lives and religious practices, reflecting a harmonious relationship between culture and nature. The adoption of Theravada Buddhism, emphasizing natural environments conducive to meditation, strengthens this bond. However, modernization and urban development challenge the preservation of these cultural landscapes. Replacing traditional temple grounds with concrete pavements and removing sacred trees highlight the tension between progress and heritage conservation.
Nature and culture converge to form a place. Landscape plants, representing nature, significantly shape a location’s image or personality. Schmid [51] recognized that vegetation contributes to a “sense of place” by enhancing a location’s distinct personality. Significant trees are inextricably linked to the character and identity of a place [28]. This study demonstrates the exceptional number of PALMAE family plants in all Lanna temples. Historical evidence, such as the first modern map of Chiang Mai from 1893, shows palm family plants in the Old City area, supported by a photograph of Chiang Mai from the early 19th century. The continued use of palms in the Lanna temples signifies the ability to maintain a significant sense of place over time.
Local plants also play a crucial role in tourism landscapes by supporting biodiversity, conservation efforts, and enhancing the visitor experience. Incorporating native plants into urban landscape planning fosters a strong sense of place, providing ecological and economic benefits while strengthening the cultural identity and unique character of the area. This study informed the development of the “Green City Tour” shuttle route, highlighting the historical and culturally significant trees in Chiang Mai’s Old City, in collaboration with the Chiang Mai Municipality. This service operates daily with multilingual commentary to enrich the tourist experience.
5.3. The Impact of Urbanization on Lanna Landscape Plants in Chiang Mai Old City
The findings highlight the impact of urbanization on plant species composition within Chiang Mai Old City, revealing a shift from native to exotic species. This shift mirrors broader urbanization trends [52]. The widespread cultivation of exotic plants for food production, decoration, and aesthetic enhancement illustrates the transformative influence of urbanization on local flora. The study reveals a 70:30 ratio of exotic to native plant species, suggesting urban development has significantly altered the local plant composition.
Historically, Chiang Mai has been a nexus of Southeast Asian civilizations and cultures for over 700 years, with the introduction of exotic plants from extensive cultural and commercial interactions. While exotic plants may initially create a favorable impression, their use without consideration for the local context can degrade overall landscape quality. Ground surveys identified certain exotic plants, such as Chinese Juniper (Juniperus chinensis) and Bromeliad species (Aechmea sp. and Ananas sp.), which did not blend harmoniously with the environment. Their distinct shapes, textures, and colors created visual dissonance rather than harmony. This excessive use of contrasting exotic plants leads to an illegible landscape. The necessity of designing landscapes that maintain visual coherence and seamlessly integrate with the existing environment [6,53].
6. Conclusions
The Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach, which integrates landscape plants into urban heritage conservation, is a relatively novel method. Although it is gaining recognition and support, particularly through UNESCO’s advocacy, its widespread implementation is still in the early stages. This approach represents a significant shift from traditional heritage preservation methods by emphasizing the importance of ecological and landscape elements, such as local plants and vegetation, in maintaining the cultural, ecological, and social dimensions of heritage sites.
This study underscores the significant role of plants in shaping the cultural, aesthetic, and social landscapes of Lanna temples in Chiang Mai Old City, Thailand, through the HUL framework. The integration of native and exotic plant species contributes to the city’s unique identity and cultural heritage, emphasizing the importance of sustainable landscape management. The research highlights several key findings about urban trees in Chiang Mai Old City as follows:
Cultural and Historical Significance: Heritage trees like the Bodhi and Yang trees are pivotal in preserving the historical and religious heritage of Chiang Mai. These trees not only symbolize the city’s past but also enhance the sense of place and community well-being.
Urban Aesthetic and Biodiversity: Plants significantly contribute to the visual appeal and biodiversity of Chiang Mai Old City. The presence of diverse plant species, including native and exotic ones, creates a dynamic and engaging environment that fosters social interaction and community connection.
Plant Zoning and Functional Distribution: The strategic distribution of plants within temple zones highlights their multifunctional roles, from providing shade and enhancing aesthetics to supporting cultural and medicinal practices. This zoning reflects a balance between aesthetic and practical uses, ensuring ecological sustainability and cultural continuity.
Integration into Daily Life and Rituals: Plants are deeply embedded in the daily lives and rituals of the Lanna people. Their use in festivals, ceremonies, and traditional practices underscores the community’s strong connection to nature and its cultural significance.
Impact of Urbanization: Urbanization has profoundly impacted the composition of plant species, with a noticeable shift from native to exotic species. This shift reflects broader urbanization trends and the need for thoughtful landscape management to preserve cultural heritage while accommodating modern development.
Multiple studies of plants in Chiang Mai Old City can demonstrate the significance of plants in defining the city’s cultural heritage, urban landscape, and sense of place. The Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) methodology highlights the importance of integrating heritage conservation with landscape and development processes. Key concepts of the HUL approach, such as viewing cities as dynamic and evolving cultural landscapes, valuing both tangible and intangible heritage, promoting sustainable development, encouraging community participation, and fostering multidisciplinary collaboration, provide a thorough framework for preserving the relationship between plants and the cultural identity of the city.
The studies show that heritage trees, such as the Bodhi Trees and the Yang Tree, represent symbols of the city’s past and connect it to its religious and heritage. These trees are essential for preserving biodiversity and functioning as cognitive anchors, providing residents and visitors with orientation and a sense of place. The presence of landscape plants on temple grounds and along city streets contributes to the city’s aesthetic appeal. With their connection to local traditions and practical applications, these plants promote social interaction and a sense of community among the people of Chiang Mai.
In addition, the unique relationship between plants and the city’s architecture displays the natural environment’s inspiration, thereby enhancing the urban landscape with their mural paintings. Numerous village names are derived from plant names, reflecting the community’s close connection to nature and the importance of plants in their daily existence. Preserving and promoting the historical, cultural, and ecological significance of these plant-related toponyms can cultivate a sense of pride and attachment in the community, thereby contributing to the city’s identity and heritage. Furthermore, the study of plants in Lanna temples demonstrates how delicately selected and arranged plant materials contribute to a sense of sanctity.
The study acknowledges several limitations that should be addressed in future research. Firstly, its scope is restricted to temples within Chiang Mai Old City, potentially limiting the generalizability of the findings to other regions with different cultural and ecological contexts. Secondly, the reliance on interviews for data collection may introduce subjectivity, despite efforts to corroborate findings with historical documents and scholarly publications. Additionally, the focus on specific plant species might overlook other important flora contributing to the cultural landscape. Lastly, the lack of a comprehensive management plan for urban green spaces highlights the need for further research and policy development to preserve cultural heritage amid urbanization.
Investigation, W.W. and F.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Data are contained within the article.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Map of Chiang Mai Old City highlighting the locations of the 38 Lanna temples investigated in this study.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Typical layout of a Lanna temple in Chiang Mai Old City, divided into three zones centered around the main pavilion and pagoda.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Heritage tree of Chiang Mai Old City in temple area. (A) Bhodi tree (Ficus religiosa) in Wat Phra Chao Mengrai temple. (Location: 18°47′05.23″ N, 98°59′02.54″ E). (B) Bhodi tree (Ficus religiosa) in Wat Umong Maha Thera Chan temple. (Location: 18°47′22.71″ N, 98°59′22.38″ E). (C) Bhodi tree (Ficus religiosa) in Wat Chiang Man temple. (Location: 18°47′35.94″ N, 98°59′19.95″ E). (D) Yang tree (Dipterocarpus alatus) in Wat Chedi Luang temple. (Location: 18°47′12.00″ N, 98°59′16.68″ E).
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Relationship between the plants depicted in a mural painting and the Lanna temple landscape and city skyline in Chiang Mai Old City. (A) Mural painting in the grand pavilion of Wat Phra Singha temple (Location: 18°47′18.14″ N, 98°58′52.37″ E). (B) Pavilion in Wat Chiang Man Temple (Location: 18°47′37.17″ N, 98°59′22.38″ E). (C) Perspective view of Wat Phra Singha and the urban skyline (Location: 18°47′18.69″ N, 98°58′55.01″ E).
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. The scenery of the area in front of the temple grounds of Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai Old City, including a tree as a component of the scenery. (Location: 18°47′18.42″ N, 98°59′00.70″ E) (A) Tree illustration on a map of Chiang Mai Old City by McCarthy in 1893. The black point indicates the location of (B,C). (B) The scenery of the area in front of the temple grounds of Wat Phra Singh in the early 1900s. (C) The scenery of the area in front of the temple grounds of Wat Phra Singh in 2023. (Source of map and photograph (B): National Archives of Thailand).
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Sacred Yang Tree (Dipterocarpus alatus): The Iconic Tree of Chiang Mai Old City at Wat Chedi Luang Temple (Location: 18°47′11.92″ N, 98°59′16.43″ E). (A) Photograph of the sacred Yang tree in the early 1900s. (B) Sacred Yang tree during the city blessing ceremony in 2023.
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Number of plant species used in various ritual offerings in Chiang Mai Old City.
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. Types of floral motifs in Lanna temples located in Chiang Mai Old City.
Enlarge this image.Figure 9. Directional Planting of Various Tree Species According to Lanna Beliefs.
Number of plants categorized by origin.
| Origin | Number of Plants |
|---|---|
| Native | 9877 (30.0) 1 |
| AUSTRALIAN | 512 (1.6) |
| BOREAL | 449 (1.4) |
| CAPENSIC | 221 (0.7) |
| NEOTROPICAL | 7703 (23.4) |
| PALEOTROPICAL | 14137 (43.8) |
| Total | 32899 (100.0) |
1 number in bracket represent % of total number of plants.
Distribution of plant types and growing status by location within the temple area of Chiang Mai Old City.
| Type | Front | Side | Back | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquatic plant | 270 (0.8) 1 | 582 (1.8) | 504 (1.5) | 1356 (4.1) |
| Climber | 102 (0.3) | 179 (0.5) | 151 (0.5) | 432 (1.3) |
| Epiphyte | 238 (0.7) | 303 (0.9) | 152 (0.5) | 693 (2.1) |
| Shrub | 6103 (18.6) | 14117 (42.9) | 6508 (19.8) | 26728 (81.2) |
| Tree | 867 (2.6) | 1812 (5.5) | 1011 (3.1) | 3690 (11.5) |
| Total | 7580 (23.0) | 16993 (51.7) | 8326 (25.3) | 32899 (100.0) |
| Growing Status | ||||
| Container | 2395 (7.3) 1 | 5296 (16.1) | 1858 (5.6) | 9549 (29.1) |
| Ground | 5185 (15.8) | 11697 (35.6) | 6468 (19.7) | 23350 (71.0) |
| Total | 7580 (23.0) | 16993 (51.7) | 8326 (25.3) | 32899 (100.0) |
1 number in bracket represent % of total number of plants.
Distribution of plants by functional use and location within the temple area of Chiang Mai Old City.
| Function | Front | Side | Back | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ornamental | 6900 (21.0) 1 | 15782 (48.0) | 7860 (23.9) | 30542 (92.8) |
| Edible | 2192 (6.7) | 5124 (15.6) | 3207 (9.7) | 10523 (32.0) |
| Applicable | 395 (1.2) | 1022 (3.1) | 399 (1.2) | 1816 (5.5) |
| Cultural | 1108 (3.4) | 3820 (11.6) | 1522 (4.6) | 6450 (19.6) |
| Medicinal | 2999 (9.1) | 6930 (21.1) | 4122 (12.5) | 14051 (42.7) |
1 number in bracket represent % of total number of plants.
Detailed distribution of plants by functional use, type, and location within the temple temple area of Chiang Mai Old City.
| Function | Front | Side | Back | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ornamental | ||||
| Foliage | 5803 (15.5) 1 | 10391 (31.6) | 5233 (15.9) | 20707 (62.9) |
| Flower | 1794 (5.5) | 5344 (16.2) | 2602 (7.9) | 9740 (29.6) |
| Ornamental Fruit | 23 (0.1) | 47 (0.1) | 25 (0.1) | 95 (0.3) |
| Edible | ||||
| Vegetable | 1673 (5.1) | 4255 (12.9) | 2812 (8.5) | 8740 (26.6) |
| Fruit | 436 (1.3) | 765 (2.3) | 380 (1.2) | 1581 (4.8) |
| Spice | 83 (0.3) | 104 (0.3) | 15 (0.0) | 202 (0.6) |
| Applicable | ||||
| Wood | 222 (0.7) | 587 (1.8) | 232 (0.7) | 1041 (3.2) |
| Dye | 171 (0.5) | 432 (1.3) | 167 (0.5) | 770 (2.3) |
| Fiber | 2 (0.0) | 3 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.0) |
| Cultural | ||||
| Tradition | 999 (3.0) | 3656 (11.1) | 1384 (4.2) | 6039 (18.4) |
| Religion | 109 (0.3) | 164 (0.5) | 138 (0.4) | 411 (1.2) |
| Medicinal | ||||
| Medicinal | 2999 (9.1) | 6930 (21.1) | 4122 (12.5) | 14051 (42.7) |
1 number in bracket represent % of total number of plants.
Number of plant species categorized by life form in Village Name of Chiang Mai Province.
| Plant Life Form | Number of Species | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Tree | 114 | 64.33 |
| Shrub | 37 | 21.64 |
| Climber Plants | 14 | 8.19 |
| Aquatic Plants | 6 | 3.51 |
| Ground Cover | 2 | 1.17 |
| Epiphytic Plants | 2 | 1.17 |
Plants Mentioned in Lanna Literature and Their Literary Use in Relation to Chiang Mai Old City.
| Plant Type | Describe | Indicate |
|---|---|---|
| Aquatic Plants | 5 | 1 |
| Climber Plants | 2 | 1 |
| Epiphytic Plants | 1 | 1 |
| Ground Cover | 0 | 4 |
| Shrub | 7 | 16 |
| Tree | 40 | 54 |
| Total | 55 | 77 |
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