1. Introduction
Traditional salami sausages are usually produced by methods based on spontaneous fermentation, and the quality and safety of the final products are not guaranteed and, in some cases, need to be improved. To avoid this problem, using starter cultures in sausage production is a common and beneficial practice in the modern industry, ensuring safety, giving the right color and flavor, and extending the shelf life while maintaining the typical characteristics of sausages [1,2]. Starter cultures containing carefully selected microorganisms (lactic acid bacteria, staphylococci, and molds) with appropriate metabolic parameters and a good ability to be implanted in sausages could allow the obtaining of better sensory characteristics and guarantee a product with repeatable organoleptic and hygienic properties in a shorter ripening time [3,4,5].
Nowadays, special attention is paid to using starter cultures in meat products. They are used in traditional products worldwide, including Turkey, Croatia, Romania, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Thailand, and China [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. In Europe, there are two main trends in the production of fermented products: the northern and the Mediterranean [14]. The characteristics of northern and Mediterranean fermented products are influenced by using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cultures and the smoking process. In northern procedures, LAB cultures are used and undergo the smoking process, while Mediterranean technology relies on the natural microflora present in the raw materials [15,16,17]. The composition of starter cultures varies depending on the product they will be used for and what tasks they fulfill. These microorganisms are assessed for their ability to grow and produce lactic acid at specific temperatures, to tolerate low pH levels and high salt concentrations (nitrites and NaCl), and perform enzymatic and antagonistic activity. There are two groups of starter cultures. The first group is acidifying bacteria, which includes the family of LAB, such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Pediococcus. The primary role of LAB is to acidify the environment to inhibit microbiological spoilage and ensure the safety of food products. Specific, LAB have the capability to produce various bacteriocins, thereby exhibiting a high degree of competitiveness against Gram-positive pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus. The second group includes coagulase-negative cocci (CNC), such as the Staphylococcus, Kocuria, and Micrococcus strains [18,19]. In turn, CNC’s typical function is to stabilize the specific red color of the meat product by reducing nitrates (V) to nitrates (III), thus facilitating the formation of nitrosomyoglobin [20,21]. However, despite the variances, both groups mentioned above impact the texture and sensory profile of the fermented meat products. This impact arises from their metabolic activity, encompassing fermentative, proteolytic, or lipolytic processes [2,3,18,19]. While LAB and CNC are recognized for their properties, the effects of individual bacterial strains may vary depending on the composition of the recipe or the processing conditions of the raw materials and semi-finished meat products. Consequently, starter cultures are combined into mixed preparations to optimize their effects for specific applications in meat processing [1,7,11,22,23].
The fermentation processes of salami sausages have been extensively studied, but there is a need for more information on sausages fermented at low temperatures. It is believed that lower temperatures can slow down the growth of pathogens, but they can also slow down the drop in pH, which, in turn, has the opposite effect. Therefore, a competitive LAB is necessary. Moreover, to improve color stabilization, it is important to ensure an enhanced antioxidation effect and increased catalase activity, which can be achieved with the help of Staphylococcus. This concept provides a safe process, resulting in sensory-desired final products without compromising safety and shelf life. Thus, this study aims to determine the effect of innovative fermentation technology on the quality of salami sausages produced at low temperatures. Additionally, the study examines the changes in the quality of the sausages during 63 days of storage under refrigerated conditions. The results of this work will be valuable for the meat industry in creating and monitoring the quality of salami sausages produced using “cold” fermentation technology.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Production and Storage of Salami-Type Sausages
This study was conducted on two salami-type sausages obtained by different fermentation technologies and then stored for 63 days. The recipe was developed and the production and ripening processes were carried out in one of the largest meat plants specializing in producing raw-ripening sausages in Poland. Salami-type sausages were made in accordance with good production practices based on the same raw material composition. The basic raw materials were lean pork meat from the shoulder cut (80% w/w) and pork back fat from the thoracic region (20% w/w) (Sokołów SA, Sokołów Podlaski, Poland). Supporting raw materials were added (in relation to the weight of basic raw materials) as follows: curing salt (2.6% w/w), ascorbic acid (0.2% w/w), dextrose (0.1% w/w), milled black pepper (0.12% w/w), and garlic (0.035% w/w) (AMCO Sp. z o.o., Dybów-Kolonia, Poland). Different fermentation technologies required the use of different starter cultures. In the case of so-called “warm” fermentation, Bactoferm F-SC-111 starter cultures (Lactobacillus sakei and Staphylococcus carnosus; total cell count ≥ 4.5 × 1010 CFU/g) (Chr. Hansen GmbH, Nienburg, Germany) were used. For so-called “cold” fermentation, SafePro® Flora Italia LC starter cultures (Lactobacillus sakei, Pediococcus acidilactici, and Staphylococcus carnosus; total cell count ≥ 3.8 × 1010 CFU/g) (Chr. Hansen GmbH, Nienburg, Germany) were applied.
The characteristics of the bacterial strains contained in the starter cultures are shown in Table 1.
Lean pork meat and pork back fat were ground through a 3 mm diameter cutting plate, then chopped in a cutter with other ingredients for 3 min to obtain a homogenous meat batter. The starter cultures were added at the level of 25 g/100 kg. The batter was stuffed into natural porcine casings with a diameter of 45 mm. These prepared semifinished products were fermented for 5 days with medium air circulation. During the first three days, “warm” fermentation was conducted at an initial temperature of 24–26 °C, followed by 20–21 °C, with a relative humidity of 85–90%. On the fourth and fifth days, the temperature was maintained at 16–18 °C with a relative humidity of about 85%. For the three days of “cold” fermentation, the temperature was around 12–15 °C with a relative humidity of 85–90%. During the fourth and fifth days, the temperature was set at approximately 15 °C, with a relative humidity of around 85%.
The fermented sausages were ripened for 14 days with an air humidity of 70–80%. On the first day, the sausages were smoked (with oak chips) for 30 min at 25 °C, and on the fourth day, for 3 h at 25 °C. Then, during ripening, the temperature in the chamber was gradually lowered to approximately 16 °C. In the last stage, the salami-type sausages were subjected to a final drying at 15 °C and a relative air humidity of approximately 75%.
Warm-fermented (WF) and cold-fermented (CF) salami-type sausages were produced and tested in four independent batches. Immediately after the ripening process at the plant, the sausage samples (20 kg of each batch) were collected and transported under refrigerated conditions to the WULS-SGGW laboratory. The batches of sausages were divided into four parts (5 kg each), which were stored for 63 days at a temperature of 2–4 °C. These samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage.
2.2. Microbiological Analyses
As part of the microbiological analysis of the salami-type sausages immediately after their ripening (on day 0 of cold storage), the total cell counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria (aerobic cell count—ACC), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Pediococcus spp., coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp., and yeasts were determined. For the first two microbiological analyses, samples were prepared, inoculated, incubated (30 °C, 72 h), and assessed according to the procedures used by Dasiewicz et al. [24]. Peddiococcus spp. counts were determined according to the method described by Radulović et al. [25]. The bacteria were inoculated on MRS (de Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe) Agar and Slanetz Agar (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA, USA) and then incubated for 72 h under anaerobic conditions at 30 °C and aerobic conditions at 35 °C, respectively. The coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. were inoculated on Chapman Agar (BTL, Łódź, Poland) and then incubated under aerobic conditions at 30 °C for 72 h [26]. In turn, the yeasts were incubated on YGC Agar (BTL, Łódź, Poland) and then incubated under aerobic conditions at 25 °C for 72 h [27]. All microbiological counts were expressed in colony-forming units per g of sample (CFU/g).
2.3. Determination of the Basic Chemical Composition
The basic chemical composition (water, protein, fat, salt, and ash) of the salami-type sausages was determined by means of near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy, using a FoodScanTM 2 Meat Analyzer (FOSS Analytical, Hilleroed, Denmark), in accordance with a PN-A-82109 standard [28]. The samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. Approximately 250 g of sausage was ground in a Zelmer ZMM4048B grinder (Zelmer S.A., Mesko, Poland) using a mesh of 3.0 mm diameter. The ground sample was transferred to an optical glass plate (14 mm high and 140 mm in diameter) placed in the measuring chamber. Measurements were taken in near-infrared light (wavelength: 850–1050 mm) at sixteen different locations of one loaded sample.
2.4. Measurement of pH Level and Water Activity
2.4.1. pH Level
The pH level of the salami-type sausages was determined according to the ISO 2917 standard [29]. A Testo 206-pH2 pH-meter (Testo SE & Co. KGaA, Titisee-Neustadt, Germany), equipped with a combined glass–calomel electrode, was used. The samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. Before each measurement cycle, the pH meter was calibrated against standard pH 4 and pH 7 buffers. Measurements were performed three times for each sample.
2.4.2. Water Activity
The water activity (aw) of the salami-type sausages was measured using an AquaLab Series 3 water activity meter (METER Group, Inc., München, Germany). The samples were tested on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. Measurements were performed in three repetitions for each sample at a temperature of 22 ± 1 °C.
2.5. Determination of the Acid Value and TBARS
2.5.1. Acid Value
The acid value (AV) of the salami-type sausages was determined by the reference method in accordance with the ISO 660 standard [30]. The samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. A total of 4 g of ground salami was weighed into conical flasks with a ground joint, and then 50 mL of 96% denatured ethanol (Chempur, Piekary Śląskie, Poland) was added. The obtained mixture was stirred for 10 min at 1000 rpm using a C-MAG MS 10 IKA magnetic stirrer (EQUIMED P.S.A., Kraków, Poland). This prepared sample was titrated with a 0.1 M ethanolic KOH solution against phenolphthalein (Chempur, Piekary Śląskie, Poland) until a raspberry color was obtained, which lasted for 15 s. The AV was expressed as the number of mg KOH needed to neutralize the free fatty acids in 1 g of fat.
2.5.2. TBARS Index
The TBARS (Thiobarbituric Acid and Reactive Substances) index, indicating the degree of lipid peroxidation of the salami-type sausages, was determined by the Shahidi [31] modified method. The samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. Two grams of the comminuted sausage was weighed into a centrifuge tube with an accuracy of 0.01 g; 5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid—THC (Avantor Performance Materials, Gliwice, Poland) was added; and the mixture was vigorously ground for 2 min. Then, 5 mL of 0.02 M thiobarbituric acid—TBA (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) solution was added to the test tube, and the mixture was ground for a further 2 min. The next step was centrifuging the samples for 10 min at 4000 rpm. After centrifugation, the solution was filtered into a glass test tube and placed in a boiling water bath for 35 min. After this time, the test tube with a sample was cooled using cold running water. The absorbance of the obtained solutions was measured using a Camspec M501 Single Bean spectrophotometer (Spectronic Camspec Ltd., Garforth, UK) at a wavelength of 532 nm. The measurement was performed against a reagent sample (5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid and 5 mL of 0.02 M TBA solution). The TBARS index was expressed as the number of mg malondialdehyde (MDA) contained in 1 kg of product, which was calculated according to the following equation:
TBARS = Abs × 2.34(1)
where Abs—absorbance of the tested sample; 2.34—absorbance conversion factor.2.6. Color Measurement
The color of the cross-section of the salami-type sausages was determined in the CIEL*a*b* color space using a Konica Minolta Chroma Meter CR-400 (Minolta, Osaka, Japan). The samples were tested on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage. A D65 light source, 2° observer, and 2 mm aperture size were used. Before the measurements, the measuring head was calibrated against the white standard plate (Y = 84.2, x = 0.3202, y = 0.3373). The measurements were made in five repetitions for each sample. The following basic color coordinates were determined: +L* (lightness), +/−a*(redness/greenness), and +/−b* (yellowness/blueness). In addition, the total color difference (ΔE0) of the salami-type sausages was calculated according to the following equation [32]:
ΔE0 = [(Ls* − L0*)2 + (as* − a0*)2 + (bs* − b0*)2]1/2(2)
where ΔE0—the total color difference between the salami-type sausages stored for 21/42/63 days compared to those at day “0” of storage; L0*, a0*, b0*—the color coordinates of the salami-type sausages at day “0”of storage; L2*, a2*, b2*—the color coordinates of salami-type sausages stored for 21/42/63 days.2.7. Microscopic Observations
The appearance of the internal structure of the salami-type sausages was analyzed using optical microscopy [33]. A MET-200-TRF metallographic microscope (Delta Optical, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Poland), connected to a DLT-Cam PRO 6.3MP digital camera, was used. The sample preparation involved cutting a 1 mm slice from the middle of each sausage bar with a scalpel and then drying its surface. The prepared sample was then placed on the microscope stage and immediately observed at 20× magnification under reflected light. Images of the samples were captured using the compatible DLT-Cam Viewer ver. 3.7 software.
2.8. Texture Analyses
The textural properties of the salami-type sausages were determined by the instrumental method using a Zwicki 1120 testing machine (Zwick GmbH, Ennepetal, Germany). A Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) [34], Warner–Bratzler shear test [35], and penetration test [36] were used. The samples were examined on 0, 21, 42, and 63 days of cold storage.
The TPA was performed on cube-shaped samples (2 cm sides), which were conditioned for about 2 h at 20 ± 1 °C before the measurements. Each sample was compressed in two cycles during analysis between two parallel plates. In the first cycle, the sample was compressed to 30% of its height, and in the second cycle, to its destruction. Each cycle was performed at the same initial force (0.2 N), head speed (50 mm/min), and relaxation time (20 s). Texture parameters such as hardness [N], cohesiveness, elasticity [mm], chewiness [N], and gumminess were evaluated (in five repetitions for each sample variant) at 21 ± 1 °C. For the shear force test, cubic samples (5.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 cm) were cut from the middle part of the sausage bars. The analysis was performed using a Warner–Bratzler adapter with a flat-shaped cutting blade. The maximum force [N] required to completely cut the sample with a 50 mm/min speed was measured four times. The penetration test was carried out on 20 mm long slices of the sausages. During analysis, a metal flat pin (13 mm diameter) immersed the sample to a depth of 10 mm with a speed of 50 mm/min. The maximum penetration force [N] was measured four times for each sample. The final results were arithmetic mean values.
2.9. Sensory (Hedonic) Evaluation
A sensory analysis was carried out by a professional sensory panel consisting of trained employees of the plant where the salami sausages were produced. The assessment was carried out at the same time intervals as the physicochemical tests (every 21 days). The following sensory quality parameters were assessed: color, odor, consistency, flavor, off-flavor, and overall desirability on a scale of 1 to 9 points. The acceptability of the given parameters was determined on an unscaled axis. The parameters were measured and recorded in a numerical value ranging from 0 to 9 with an accuracy of 0.1 [37].
2.10. Statistical Analyses
The results were statistically analyzed using Statistica 13.1 software (TIBCO Software Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA). A Shapiro–Wilk’s test verified the normality of the data distribution. Student’s t-test was used to compare the mean values of the evaluated parameters of the salami-type sausages fermented with cold and “warm” technology. The differences between the salami-type sausages stored for 0, 21, 42, and 63 days were determined using the one-way variance test (ANOVA). If significant differences were found (sigma restrictions test), homogeneous groups were distinguished using Tukey’s HSD test. A significance level of α was set to 0.05, and significant differences between variables were demonstrated at p ≤ 0.05 [38].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Influence of Fermentation Technology on the Microbiological Characteristics of Salami-Type Sausages
Traditional, regionally specific meat products are produced by spontaneous fermentation (mixed starter cultures naturally present in the production environment). This process is controlled and monitored according to the rules inherited from ancestors and is usually carried out in unique environmental conditions [1,14]. On the other hand, the meat industry carries out the fermentation of raw materials and semi-products based on selected starter cultures (usually several components) in fermentation chambers with a controlled atmosphere [7,11,23]. Many common features can be found for the starter cultures used in both types of production, i.e., their microbiological origin, mainly from the Lactobacillaceae group, and production of lactic acid that stabilizes the pH of processed meat products [18,19].
The results in Table 2 outline the total counts of aerobic bacteria (ACC), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Pediococcus spp., coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp., and yeasts present in the examined salami-type sausages after the ripening process.
A microbiological analysis revealed that immediately post-ripening, mesophilic aerobic bacteria and LAB were the predominant microflora in the examined salami-type sausages. Abdulrahman and Qoja [39] made similar observations. As shown in Table 2, the ACC count was about 6.1 to 7.1 log CFU/g. Furthermore, the “warm”-fermented (WF) sausages were characterized by notably higher total counts of these bacteria than the “cold”-fermented (CF) sausages. This disparity could be attributed to the higher fermentation temperature (20–26 °C for 3 days), which created a more conducive environment for the proliferation and activity of mesophilic microorganisms. For comparison, Abdulrahman and Qoja [39] and Yalçın and Ertürkmen [22] obtained heat-fermented sausages with aerobic bacteria counts exceeding 8.0 log CFU/g just prior to storage.
In the case of the salami produced using the “warm” fermentation method, about 7.1 log CFU/g of LAB was reported, which was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than in the CF sausages (5.9 log CFU/g)—Table 2. Yanmaz et al. [40] analyzed various commercially available salami-type sausages and reported that the LAB count ranged from 2.0 to 8.1 log CFU/g. The relatively high LAB count in the final products can be attributed predominantly to the deliberate incorporation of LAB starter cultures during manufacturing (as detailed in Section 2.1). These bacteria can effectively inhibit the growth of undesirable saprophytic and pathogenic microorganisms, ensuring the microbiological safety of sausages during storage [18,19]. Moreover, Wójciak and Dolatowski [41] emphasized that consuming food containing around 7.0 live probiotic bacterial cells per gram may confer health benefits.
Unlike sausages obtained through the “cold” fermentation method, no Pediococcus spp. bacteria and yeasts were found in their warm-fermented counterparts. For the first ones, the total cell count exceeded 5.0 and 3.0 log CFU/g, respectively (Table 2). The presence of Pediococcus spp. in CF sausages can be attributed to the inclusion of Pediococcus acidilactici in the sausage recipe through the use of the starter culture. On the other hand, yeast could thrive in CF sausages due to the milder processing conditions. Gianni et al. [42] demonstrated that the total yeast count in fermented Italian-type sausages can reach approximately 4.0 log CFU/g immediately after the ripening stage. It should be emphasized that Pediococcus acidilactici’s metabolic activity in stored salami-type sausages can inhibit harmful microorganisms and limit the oxidative transformations of the components, especially lipids and proteins. Pediococcus acidilactici can produce exopolysaccharides that restrict the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), while increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) [43].
The total number of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. in the salami-type sausages was about 3.2 log CFU/g, irrespective of the fermentation method applied (Table 2). It is important to note that the Staphylococcus carnosus strain was incorporated into the sausages as a starter culture component (see Section 2.1). According to Milicevic et al. [44], the final count of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. during the ripening of fermented sausages can vary from 3 to 9 log CFU/g, depending on the sausage type, pH, salt levels, and competition with LAB. Importantly, Staphylococcus carnosus demonstrates a relatively high metabolic activity (see Table 1), which can limit oxidative changes, stabilize the typical red color, and preserve meat products’ desired odor and flavor over time [20,21].
3.2. Influence of Fermentation Technology and Storage Time on the Primary Chemical Composition of Salami-Type Sausages
The primary chemical composition of the finished product depends primarily on the composition of the raw material and its production technology. According to technological assumptions, the salami-type sausages produced had the same raw material composition. Still, the fermentation method was different: the “warm” (traditional) method and the “cold” method (as detailed in Section 2.1).
The sausages did not differ in water, protein, fat, salt, and ash content (Table 3). Furthermore, their primary chemical composition was typical for meat products available on the Polish market [45,46]. Moreover, the conducted studies did not show a significant effect of storage time on the content of the chemical components in the salami-type sausages, irrespective of the fermentation technology used (Table 3). Similarly, Stangierski et al. [47] observed no significant changes in the water, protein, and fat content during the cold storage of smoked salami and mold salami. In turn, Mitrović et al. [48] emphasized that water loss during storage would result in an increase in the percentage concentration of other components.
In these studies, the proper chemical composition of the salami sausages was primarily established during the fermentation and ripening stages. Throughout these processes, the increased metabolic activity of the starter cultures led to the production of lactic acid and other metabolites (e.g., bacteriocins) with antimicrobial or antioxidant effects, as well as the proteolytic and lipolytic transformation of components, influencing the texture, flavor, and odor characteristics [2,3,18,19]. Refrigerated storage serves the purpose of retarding the processes that alter food products, thereby upholding their longevity and safety. The observed minimal changes in the composition of the tested salami sausages during storage (Table 3) suggest their overall stable quality. Conversely, significant alterations in the chemical composition of the salami during storage would indicate irregularities in the production process, improper components’ selection, or secondary microbiological contamination, all of which could potentially lead to the sausages spoiling before their expiration date [5,10,46].
3.3. Influence of Fermentation Technology and Storage Time on the Physicochemical and Chemical Properties of Salami-Type Sausages
Although the production of raw sausages is perceived as a very “solid” technology, there is a constant risk of manufacturing defective products and threats caused by the activity of pathogenic microorganisms. One of the conditions for success in producing raw sausages is achieving the high microbiological purity of the product. This can be achieved, among others, by creating as many obstacles as possible to the growth of unfavorable microorganisms during the entire production process. The basic idea is to obtain a stable sausage product by sufficiently reducing the pH and/or water activity (aw) and the appropriate salt content [2,10].
Water activity in both tested variants of the salami sausages immediately after ripening was at a similar level, i.e., about 0.86 (Table 4). During storage, it decreased regardless of the fermentation method. In the case of salami sausages fermented with “warm” technology, the decrease in water activity was significantly greater, and on the 63rd day of storage, it amounted to about 0.83 (Table 3). However, the produced and tested salami sausages presented lower aw values than those in the studies by Karwowska [49] and De Mey [50]. It should be emphasized that the starter cultures produced lactic acid during the initial fermentation stage, which lowered the pH of the sausage, bringing it closer to the isoelectric point. As a result, the water-binding capacity of myofibrillar proteins decreased, allowing for the reduction in water content during processing. This created less favorable conditions for microbial growth [51].
Obtaining low water activity is an essential indicator of the safety of fermented meat products. To prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms, i.e., Clostridium botulinum and Salmonella, it is necessary to quickly reduce the aw value to the desired level (<0.96 and <0.94, respectively). According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), no formal definition of “dry” and “semidry” sausages exists. Dry sausages are characterized by a final water activity of 0.85–0.91, and semidry sausages are in the range of 0.90–0.94. It is also assumed that raw dried sausage can be stored at room temperature if its water activity is lower than 0.91 [46,52].
In the present study, the pH of the sausages produced using “warm” technology immediately after ripening was 5.07 (Table 4). The obtained results are consistent with the study by Liu [53]. Lactic acid production (by LAB during fermentation) reduces the pH value of the sausage, inhibits the growth of spoilage organisms, and promotes the formation of the flavor and color of the sausage. During storage, the value of this parameter decreased to 4.92 (Table 3). In the case of salami-type sausages produced by “cold” fermentation, a significantly lower pH value (4.87) was determined than for “warm”-fermented sausages. In addition, after 63 days of storage, a further decrease in pH to 4.81 was noted (Table 4).
The examined salami-type sausages meet the criteria for durable dry sausages in terms of water activity (≤0.90) and pH (≤5.3) [54]. These products can be considered safe and stored at room temperature. This is also consistent with the manufacturer’s declaration on the label of the sausages fermented using the “warm” method.
Due to the high content of fat in the produced salami-type sausages (see Table 3) and the significant influence of fat and its derivatives on the sensory properties of the final products, the degree of hydrolysis (acid value—AV) and the secondary degree of oxidation (TBARS index) of this component were determined. The results are shown in Table 4. During cold storage, the salami-type sausages fermented using “warm” technology exhibited a significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher AV (in the range of 7.0–11.3 mg KOH/g) throughout the cold storage period compared to sausages obtained using “cold” technology (in the range of 4.4–7.4 mg KOH/g). Furthermore, the stored sausages showed a noticeable increase in the degree of fat hydrolysis over time, regardless of the technology used (Table 4). As expected, the AVs were the lowest on day 0. Interestingly, the sausages fermented using “cold” fermentation did not show a significant difference in AV (p > 0.05) on day 21 compared to day 0 (Table 4). This suggests that using “cold” fermentation instead of “warm” fermentation for salami-type sausages can help reduce the degree and rate of fat hydrolysis, potentially extending the shelf life of these products.
Important components of fermented meat products (protein and fat) are easily oxidized and degraded during production and processing, affecting the products’ quality. During fermentation and ripening, proteins are hydrolyzed into short peptides and free amino acids, which are degraded into aldehydes, acids, and esters under the influence of microorganisms. Moderate protein degradation can improve the nutritional value and taste of the product. In contrast, excessive protein oxidation will adversely affect the texture, water retention, and flavor and reduce the digestibility and nutritional value of meat products [53,55].
The level of fat oxidation in cold cuts, including salami-type sausages, can be indicated by the TBARS index. Immediately after the ripening process (day 0), the TBARS index of salami-type sausages produced using the “cold” fermentation method was around 0.6 mg MDA/kg of the product, which was significantly lower than that for the “warm”-fermented sausages (around 0.9 mg MDA/kg of the product) (Table 4). Similar levels of TBARS index were obtained by Ameer et al. [56], who studied dry fermented pork sausages obtained using a Lactobacillus sakei starter culture and the “warm” fermentation method. According to Marco et al. [57], TBARS index values in the 0.6–2.8 mg MDA/kg range for fermented sausages are acceptable.
During cold storage, the TBARS index value of the salami-type sausages decreased slightly, regardless of the fermentation technology. It reached its lowest level on the 42nd day of storage and then increased again. In addition, throughout the storage period, the TBARS index values of the “cold”-fermented salami-type sausages were significantly lower (p ≤ 0.05) compared to sausages produced using “warm” technology (Table 4). The reduction in TBARS levels could have been influenced by the enzymes produced by the current starter cultures, which catalyzed the breakdown of fat oxidation products [6,20,43]. Research conducted by Wang et al. [23] and Wang et al. [58] proved that enzymes such as catalase and glutathione peroxidase, which are secreted by Staphylococcus carnosus during fermentation, contribute to reducing the concentration of lipid oxidation products in ripening sausages. During the extended 63-day storage period in our study, it is likely that the enzymatic activity decreased significantly. As a result, newly formed fat oxidation products accumulated, increasing the TBARS index (Table 4).
3.4. Influence of Fermentation Technology and Storage Time on the Color Parameters of Salami-Type Sausages
The meat’s color is a critical indicator of its quality, freshness, and potential changes in safety or spoilage. Consumers rely on the color of the meat to decide whether it is suitable for consumption. Consequently, an aberrant or altered coloration is typically associated with negative perceptions [59].
The characteristic bright red color observed in fermented sausages during curing is attributed to the presence of nitrosylmyoglobin, where nitric oxide (NO) coordinates with the central Fe+2 in the heme. The formation of this curing pigment involves a complex interplay of microbiological, enzymatic, and chemical processes influenced by variables such as pH, receptors, redox potential, and curing agent distribution. Temperature is employed not only to inhibit the growth of undesirable microorganisms such as Clostridium botulinum but also for its effectiveness as an antioxidant, hindering lipid oxidation and the development of rancid off-flavors [60,61]. The decision to introduce nitrites to fermented sausages hinges on the attainment of the characteristic red color, which is extensively detailed in the literature, including the influence of reducing agents (e.g., ascorbate/ascorbic acid) on expediting the conversion of nitrite to NO [62].
The color parameter values in the cross-sections of the salami-type sausages are detailed in Table 5. It was noted that immediately after ripening (on day 0), “warm”-fermented and “cold”-fermented sausages exhibited comparable (p > 0.05) levels of L* and a* color parameters, averaging 51.2–53.8 and 16.9–18.7 units, respectively. Furthermore, irrespective of the fermentation technology, no notable disparities in sausage brightness (L*) and redness (a*) were detected during cold storage (Table 5). The formation of nitrosylmyoglobin (after curing) and a decrease in the pH level of a cured meat product (due to lactic acid production) can contribute to the development and stability of its color. Nevertheless, color deterioration can be caused by other reactions, including the oxidation of fats and proteins [63,64]. On day 0 of cold storage, the fermentation method did not exert the b* color parameter (indicating yellowness) of the salami-type sausages. However, after 21 days of storage, the yellowness of the WF was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) greater compared to the CF sausages. Furthermore, the duration of cold storage did not demonstrate a significant impact (p > 0.05) on the variation in the yellowness of the sausages produced using either fermentation method (Table 5). The differences in yellowness between the WF and CF sausages’ cross-sections could have resulted from more intense oxidative changes of fats in the sausages obtained using “warm” fermentation (see details in Table 3).
Furthermore, the total color change (ΔE0) of the stored sausages was calculated based on the color parameters L*, a*, and b*. This parameter did not exceed 2.0 for WF sausages and 1.0 for CF sausages throughout the cold storage period (Table 5). According to Mokrzycki and Tatol [32], when the ΔE is less than 2.0, an untrained observer cannot perceive a color distinction between the samples, which is discernible solely to an experienced observer. An ΔE value below 1.0 suggests that even experienced observers cannot discern the color differences. Therefore, it can be concluded that the color of the CF sausages demonstrated greater stability during storage compared to the WF sausages.
The relatively small color variations noticed in the examined salami-type sausages can be attributed to including starter cultures. Research conducted by Palavecino Prpich et al. [65] and Stadnik et al. [66] has indicated that incorporating LAB in the production of fermented sausages effectively protects proteins and fats from oxidation, thereby enhancing color stability during storage.
3.5. Influence of Fermentation Technology and Storage Time on the Textural Properties of Salami-Type Sausages
The texture of fermented sausages results from physicochemical reactions occurring in the ground product during the fermentation and drying cycles. It depends primarily on the composition and processing of the raw materials [67]. The process of creating the texture of fermented products can be divided into three stages: extracting proteins during and after meat grinding, forming a protein gel during fermentation, and removing water during drying. The correct course of the subsequent stages is crucial for achieving the desired texture of the products [68].
Figure 1 depicts microscopic images of salami-type sausage slices captured immediately after ripening and during refrigerated storage. Sausages produced through “cold” and “warm” fermentation techniques exhibited a relatively consistent structure, with a uniform combination of chopped meat and fat. During grinding, salt is added to dissolve and extract proteins, primarily myosin, from the meat myofibrils, forming a dense protein film around the ground meat particles. In the subsequent fermentation process, the pH is decreased, causing the proteins to coagulate and form a gel that binds fat and meat molecules tightly together [68,69]. However, as shown in Figure 1, sporadic single pores were observed in “cold”-fermented sausages, whereas “warm”-fermented sausages exhibited numerous pores. This discrepancy may result from difficulties encountered during the stuffing process, such as the utilization of inefficient machinery or inadequate venting. Nevertheless, it was noted that the structure porosity of sausages increased over time, which could be caused by a significant decrease in LAB activity and pH increase (see Table 4). An elevated pH level in fermented sausages frequently leads to a relaxation of their structure [19].
Table 6 presents the results of the TPA, shear force, and penetration force tests. The hardness of the salami sausages produced using “cold” fermentation technology increased over the storage period, unlike those produced using “warm” technology.
At the beginning of the storage test, the WF sausages exhibited greater hardness than the CF sausages. However, after 21 days, the hardness of the WF sausages decreased by approximately 14%, and there was no substantial difference compared to the CF sausages (with a relatively constant hardness level until the 42nd day of cold storage). After 63 days, a notable change in these textural parameter values was observed, with the CF sausages demonstrating a significantly higher hardness (p ≤ 0.05) than the WF sausages. Regarding springiness, the CF sausages consistently demonstrated higher values during cold storage, except on day 0 (Table 6). Moreover, despite these distinctions, neither the fermentation method nor the storage time had any discernible effect on the cohesiveness of the salami-type sausages. Similar results were obtained by Kameník et al. [70] when investigating the textural properties of “warm”-fermented Poličan salami during refrigerated storage.
The chewiness of WF salami tended to decrease during cold storage, while the CF salami showed an opposite trend. Finally, on the 63rd day of storage, the second one displayed a significantly higher chewiness (Table 6). Stangierski et al. [47] reported similar trends in chewiness for smoked salami (decreasing chewiness) and mold salami (increasing chewiness). The researchers attributed these changes to variances in water migration within the bars during storage.
Immediately after ripening, WF sausages exhibited higher shear and penetration forces than CF sausages. The shear force decreased for both sausages after 42 days of storage, making them more susceptible to cutting. However, the penetration force decreased over time for WF sausages, whereas no change was noted for CF sausages (Table 6). The former, thus, became more susceptible to disintegration when a point force was applied. This variation may be related to the increased porosity of the WF sausage structure during storage, as depicted in Figure 1. Kim et al. [71] demonstrated a noteworthy decrease in the structural integrity of semidry sausages as porosity increased.
As mentioned above, in these studies, the higher fermentation temperature in the “warm” technology (using a different starter culture) presumably led to a significantly faster development of microorganisms and enhanced metabolic activity in the salami-type sausages compared to “cold” fermentation. This can be evidenced by the substantially higher counts of mesophilic aerobes and LAB in the WF sausages compared to the CF sausages (see Table 2). As is known, microbiological activity can induce (to a greater or lesser degree) textural changes in food products [72].
3.6. Influence of Fermentation Technology and Storage Time on the Sensory (Hedonic) Characteristics of Salami-Type Sausages
In addition to microbiological, physicochemical, and chemical analyses, the salami-type sausages were also subjected to sensory (hedonic) evaluation. Ultimately, the sensory characteristics of food play a pivotal role in shaping its perception by the target consumer [73]. The results obtained for all sensory attributes (color, odor, consistency, flavor, acid off-flavor, and overall desirability) of the sausages are summarized in Table 7.
The initial assessment (on day 0) of the salami-type sausages, including flavor, odor, color, and consistency, resulted in high ratings, ranging from 6.1 to 8.1 out of 9 points. Over time, the color, odor, and flavor of “cold”-fermented sausages improved. On the other hand, the color and flavor of “warm”-fermented sausages deteriorated (Table 7). The acid off-flavor in these salami sausages was at least 5.0 points. According to Hu et al. [74], acid off-flavor is a characteristic feature of fermented sausages, irrespective of the method or starter culture employed. However, in this research, the perception of acidity in the sausages evolved during the storage period, with both types of sausages increasing after 21 days. The level of acid off-flavor in CF sausages peaked on the 21st and 42nd day of storage, while in WF sausages, the highest acidity sensation was noted on the 63rd day. Interestingly, the enhanced acidity of the CF sausages on days 21 and 42 positively influenced their overall desirability, surpassing that of the WF sausages. Conversely, the highest acidity of WF sausages on the last day of storage (Table 7) was most likely caused by biochemical transformations that led to unfavorable sensory changes. One of the main factors may have been the significant level of fat hydrolysis (see Table 3). Stollewerk et al. [75] showed that the fermentation conditions significantly influence the biochemical changes observed in sausages during storage, thereby playing a pivotal role in shaping these products’ sensory acceptability and desirability.
4. Conclusions
In this research, the effect of fermentation technology (“warm”—traditional, “cold”—alternative) and refrigerated storage time on the quality characteristics of salami-type sausages (made of pork) was evaluated.
This study demonstrated the significant influence of fermentation conditions and culture selection on the quality characteristics of the salami sausages (of the same recipe composition) immediately after ripening and on the differentiation of their individual properties during cold storage. The quality attributes of WF sausages exhibited more pronounced alterations during storage than those of CF sausages. This discrepancy can be primarily attributed to a heightened fermentation rate, instigating the salamis’ modification during the subsequent processing and storage phases. Conversely, the gentler conditions during “cold” fermentation result in a slower evolution of the stored sausages’ properties. Despite the high counts of LAB (about 7 log CFU/g) and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp. (about 3 log CFU/g) after ripening, their metabolic activity in WF sausages can be much lower compared to CF sausages. Therefore, these beneficial microorganisms presumably provided less protection for the product, resulting in increased pH levels, a degree of fat hydrolysis and oxidation, and the decreased hardness of traditional salami during storage. The sensory evaluation reflected these unfavorable quality changes, showing that “cold”-fermented sausages were more sensorially desirable, especially after 21 days of storage.
Considering the obtained results, it can be inferred that utilizing “cold” fermentation instead of “warm” fermentation in producing salami-type sausages would result in final products with enhanced nutritional and sensory characteristics and an extended shelf life. It also would enable manufacturers to meet the growing demand from consumers for healthier, more flavorful, and longer-lasting fermented meat products. To ensure the comprehensiveness of the research, microbiological studies and qualitative and quantitative chemical analyses of the sausages’ components and their derivatives should be extended.
Conceptualization, K.D. and M.S.; methodology, K.D.; formal analysis, I.S.; investigation, K.D.; resources, K.D.; data curation, I.S.; writing—original draft preparation, K.D., I.S. and M.S.; writing—review and editing, K.D. and I.S.; visualization, I.S. and A.G.; supervision, B.D.; funding acquisition, A.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.
The authors would like to thank Marcin Hartman and Jakub Dasiewicz for their valuable support.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Micrographs (20× magnification) of the cross-sections of salami-type sausages fermented with (a) “warm” technology” and (b) “cold” technology, stored for 0, 21, 42, and 63 days.
Characteristics of bacteria present in Bactoferm F-SC-111 and SafePro® Flora Italia LC starter cultures used to produce salami-type sausages.
| Features | Lactobacillus sakei †† | Pediococcus acidilactici † | Staphylococcus carnosus †† |
|---|---|---|---|
| Growth temperatures (min/max/opt) [°C] | 15/45/35 | 15/52/43 | 10/45/30 |
| Salt content limit [%] | 6 | 10 | 16 |
| Oxygen tolerance | facultative anaerobic | ||
| Metabolic activity | D(−)-lactic acid-producing | DL(+/−)-lactic acid-producing | D(−)-lactic acid-producing, |
| Fermentable sugars | glucose, fructose, | glucose, fructose, | glucose, |
††—present in both Bactoferm F-SC-111 and SafePro® Flora Italia LC, †—present only in SafePro® Flora Italia LC.
Microbiological characteristics of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology after 14 days of ripening.
| Microorganisms | Total Cell Count [log CFU/g] | |
|---|---|---|
| “Warm” Technology | “Cold” Technology | |
| Aerobic cell count (ACC) | 7.11 ± 0.30 b | 6.15 ± 0.22 a |
| Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) | 7.08 ± 0.39 b | 5.92 ± 0.35 a |
| Pediococcus spp. | ND | 5.43 ± 0.41 |
| Coagulase-negative | 3.30 ± 0.46 a | 3.07 ± 0.50 a |
| Yeasts | ND | 3.08 ± 0.42 |
ND—not detectable; different lowercase letters between means values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
Basic chemical composition of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology, stored for 63 days.
| Fermentation Technology | Storage Time [Days] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 21 | 42 | 63 | |
| Water [%] | ||||
| Warm | 30.49 ± 0.47 aA | 30.26 ± 0.58 aA | 28.68 ± 0.88 aA | 30.29 ± 0.21 aA |
| Cold | 30.82 ± 0.44 aA | 30.73 ± 0.46 aA | 30.02 ± 0.34 aA | 30.58 ± 0.42 aA |
| Protein [%] | ||||
| Warm | 20.77 ± 0.44 aA | 20.21 ± 0.28 aA | 20.65 ± 0.15 aA | 20.57 ± 0.42 aA |
| Cold | 20.11 ± 0.29 aA | 19.85 ± 0.17 aA | 19.99 ± 0.30 aA | 19.99 ± 0.43 aA |
| Fat [%] | ||||
| Warm | 42.25 ± 0.94 aA | 42.75 ± 0.46 aA | 43.74 ± 0.55 aA | 42.58 ± 0.83 aA |
| Cold | 42.65 ± 0.59 aA | 42.93 ± 0.41 aA | 43.54 ± 0.59 aA | 42.64 ± 0.31 aA |
| Salt [%] | ||||
| Warm | 4.43 ± 0.04 aA | 4.56 ± 0.08 aA | 4.45 ± 0.09 aA | 4.59 ± 0.06 aA |
| Cold | 4.40 ± 0.02 aA | 4.50 ± 0.08 aA | 4.41 ± 0.03 aA | 4.47 ± 0.05 aA |
| Ash [%] | ||||
| Warm | 6.12 ± 0.08 aA | 6.08 ± 0.12 aA | 5.88 ± 0.18 aA | 6.09 ± 0.12 aA |
| Cold | 6.07 ± 0.05 aA | 5.99 ± 0.11 aA | 5.93 ± 0.07 aA | 6.00 ± 0.09 aA |
Different lowercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: storage time), p ≤ 0.05. Different uppercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the column for a given parameter indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
Changes in the physicochemical and chemical properties of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology, stored for 63 days.
| Fermentation Technology | Storage Time [Days] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 21 | 42 | 63 | |
| Water Activity [-] | ||||
| Warm | 0.855 ± 0.003 bA | 0.857 ± 0.006 bA | 0.854 ± 0.010 bA | 0.834 ± 0.006 aA |
| Cold | 0.858 ± 0.006 aA | 0.858 ± 0.007 aA | 0.865 ± 0.006 aA | 0.868 ± 0.008 aB |
| pH Level [-] | ||||
| Warm | 5.07 ± 0.06 aB | 4.97 ± 0.03 aA | 5.03 ± 0.04 aB | 4.92 ± 0.03 aB |
| Cold | 4.87 ± 0.01 abA | 4.95 ± 0.09 bA | 4.81 ± 0.02 aA | 4.81 ± 0.04 aA |
| Acid Value [mg KOH/g of fat] | ||||
| Warm | 7.03 ± 0.53 aB | 11.05 ± 0.15 bB | 11.25 ± 0.76 bB | 11.08 ± 0.05 bB |
| Cold | 4.45 ± 0.27 aA | 4.87 ± 0.20 aA | 7.39 ± 0.15 bA | 7.28 ± 0.15 bA |
| TBARS [mg MDA/kg of product] | ||||
| Warm | 0.88 ± 0.05 bB | 1.06 ± 0.01 cB | 0.76 ± 0.01 aB | 0.87 ± 0.02 bB |
| Cold | 0.62 ± 0.10 bA | 0.64 ± 0.03 bA | 0.38 ± 0.01 aA | 0.47 ± 0.01 abA |
Different lowercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: storage time), p ≤ 0.05. Different uppercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the column for a given parameter indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
Changes in the color parameters of the cross-sections of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology, stored for 63 days.
| Fermentation | Storage Time [Days] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 21 | 42 | 63 | |
| L* [-] | ||||
| Warm | 52.21 ± 0.90 aA | 53.43 ± 1.19 aA | 53.64 ± 0.83 aA | 53.77 ± 0.87 aA |
| Cold | 51.27 ± 0.89 aA | 51.89 ± 0.40 aA | 51.81 ± 0.39 aA | 51.34 ± 1.25 aA |
| a* [-] | ||||
| Warm | 18.72 ± 1.14 aA | 17.33 ± 2.68 aA | 18.23 ± 0.36 aA | 18.64 ± 0.87 aA |
| Cold | 16.87 ± 0.22 aA | 17.24 ± 0.59 aA | 17.52 ± 0.38 aA | 17.29 ± 0.66 aA |
| b* [-] | ||||
| Warm | 5.95 ± 0.60 aA | 6.37 ± 0.20 aB | 6.42 ± 0.10 aB | 6.51 ± 0.24 aB |
| Cold | 5.33 ± 0.38 aA | 5.43 ± 0.25 aA | 5.45 ± 0.15 aA | 5.28 ± 0.21 aA |
| ΔE0 [-] | ||||
| Warm | - | 1.90 ± 0.74 aA | 1.58 ± 0.69 aA | 1.66 ± 0.30 aA |
| Cold | - | 0.73 ± 0.77 aA | 0.85 ± 0.57 aA | 0.65 ± 0.87 aA |
L*—lightness, a*—redness, b*—yellowness, ΔE0—total color difference compared to day 0. Different lowercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: storage time), p ≤ 0.05. Different uppercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the column for a given parameter indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
Changes in the textural properties of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology, stored for 63 days.
| Fermentation Technology | Storage Time [Days] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 21 | 42 | 63 | |
| Hardness [N] | ||||
| Warm | 63.38 ± 3.75 aB | 54.23 ± 6.95 aA | 53.16 ± 4.60 aA | 47.43 ± 3.10 aA |
| Cold | 53.88 ± 2.76 aA | 58.36 ± 1.36 abA | 53.96 ± 1.52 aA | 62.26 ± 0.60 bB |
| Cohesiveness [-] | ||||
| Warm | 0.48 ± 0.02 aA | 0.51 ± 0.02 aA | 0.51 ± 0.01 aA | 0.48 ± 0.03 aA |
| Cold | 0.54 ± 0.03 aA | 0.52 ± 0.02 aA | 0.53 ± 0.01 aA | 0.52 ± 0.01 aA |
| Springiness [-] | ||||
| Warm | 0.63 ± 0.05 aA | 0.56 ± 0.04 aA | 0.55 ± 0.03 aA | 0.53 ± 0.03 aA |
| Cold | 0.67 ± 0.02 aA | 0.68 ± 0.01 aB | 0.69 ± 0.02 aB | 0.70 ± 0.02 aB |
| Chewiness [N] | ||||
| Warm | 18.23 ± 1.76 aA | 16.57 ± 2.27 aA | 15.31 ± 1.62 aA | 12.73 ± 1.24 aA |
| Cold | 19.57 ± 1.16 aA | 19.93 ± 0.62 aA | 18.50 ± 1.15 aA | 21.52 ± 0.82 aB |
| Shear force [N] | ||||
| Warm | 50.93 ± 0.87 bB | 46.06 ± 2.80 bA | 36.37 ± 0.61 aA | 35.60 ± 1.37 aA |
| Cold | 43.75 ± 2.38 bA | 44.48 ± 4.34 bA | 31.76 ± 3.15 aA | 32.37 ± 2.31 aA |
| Penetration force [N] | ||||
| Warm | 50.93 ± 0.87 bB | 45.08 ± 1.89 aA | 43.18 ± 3.75 aA | 44.02 ± 1.01 aA |
| Cold | 42.00 ± 2.20 aA | 41.05 ± 5.28 aA | 42.77 ± 1.62 aA | 46.05 ± 1.50 aA |
Different lowercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: storage time), p ≤ 0.05. Different uppercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the column for a given parameter indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
Changes in the sensory attributes of salami-type sausages fermented with “warm” and “cold” technology, stored for 63 days.
| Fermentation Technology | Storage Time [Days] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 21 | 42 | 63 | |
| Color [points] | ||||
| Warm | 8.13 ± 0.08 bA | 5.67 ± 0.54 aA | 7.27 ± 0.08 bA | 8.00 ± 0.00 bB |
| Cold | 8.10 ± 0.08 bcA | 7.73 ± 0.36 bB | 8.53 ± 0.08 cB | 6.20 ± 0.00 aA |
| Odor [points] | ||||
| Warm | 7.00 ± 0.00 bA | 6.47 ± 0.08 aA | 6.80 ± 0.14 bA | 7.40 ± 0.00 cB |
| Cold | 6.93 ± 0.29 aA | 6.67 ± 0.67 aA | 8.40 ± 0.16 bB | 6.87 ± 0.16 aA |
| Consistency [points] | ||||
| Warm | 6.47 ± 0.16 aA | 6.33 ± 0.73 aA | 6.53 ± 0.29 aA | 7.33 ± 0.08 aA |
| Cold | 6.67 ± 0.33 aA | 6.67 ± 0.71 aA | 8.00 ± 0.14 aB | 7.80 ± 0.00 aB |
| Flavor [points] | ||||
| Warm | 6.13 ± 0.29 abA | 6.40 ± 0.42 bA | 5.13 ± 0.08 aA | 7.08 ± 0.20 bA |
| Cold | 6.33 ± 0.41 aA | 7.13 ± 0.29 bcB | 7.93 ± 0.22 cB | 7.00 ± 0.00 abA |
| Acid off-flavor [points] | ||||
| Warm | 5.13 ± 0.33 abA | 5.47 ± 0.45 bA | 5.03 ± 0.22 abA | 6.87 ± 0.16 cA |
| Cold | 6.07 ± 0.36 aA | 7.00 ± 0.28 bB | 7.67 ± 0.08 bB | 6.93 ± 0.08 abA |
| Overall desirability [points] | ||||
| Warm | 6.42 ± 0.27 bA | 6.27 ± 0.36 bA | 5.90 ± 0.34 abA | 5.43 ± 0.20 aA |
| Cold | 6.83 ± 0.27 aA | 7.07 ± 0.29 abB | 7.87 ± 0.16 bB | 6.93 ± 0.08 aA |
Different lowercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the row indicate significant differences (grouping variable: storage time), p ≤ 0.05. Different uppercase letters between mean values ± standard deviations in the column for a given parameter indicate significant differences (grouping variable: fermentation technology), p ≤ 0.05.
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; Szymanska, Iwona 1
; Slowinski, Miroslaw 1
; Górska, Agata 2
; Dasiewicz, Beata 2 1 Department of Food Technology and Assessment, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 159C Nowoursynowska Street, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;
2 Department of Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 159C Nowoursynowska Street, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland;