Mangrove Ecotourism along the Coasts of the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Mangrove ecotourism is gaining immense popularity in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries as a neoliberal conservation tool, and it has contributed significantly to the growth of the tourism sector in the region over the past two decades. However, there is no comprehensive review on the full extent of mangrove ecotourism activities and the contribution to mangrove conservation/restoration and economic growth in the region. A systematic literature review approach was used to examine the evolution of mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries from 2010 to 2023. A total of 55 articles were retrieved from the Google and Google Scholar search engines, and the Scopus and Web of Science databases were incorporated. We synthesized the results and provided perspectives on the following: (1) the geographical and temporal distribution of studies in relation to mangrove extent, (2) key sites, attractions, and values for mangrove ecotourism activities, (3) the positive and negative impacts of mangrove ecotourism, and (4) existing mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives for the growth of mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries. The findings underscore the significance of mangrove ecotourism in supporting economic development, protecting coastal ecosystems, and sustaining local livelihoods in the GCC countries. However, this study highlights the crucial need for sustainable coastal environmental management through integrated land use planning and zoning to address the negative impacts of anthropogenic pressures on mangrove ecosystems and ecotourism attractions. The use of remote sensing tools is invaluable in the monitoring of mangrove ecosystems and associated ecotourism impacts for informing evidence-based conservation and restoration management approaches. Thus, harnessing mangrove ecotourism opportunities can help the GCC countries with balancing economic growth, coastal environmental sustainability, and community well-being.

1. Introduction

Mangrove forests are bio-diverse and productive ecosystems in the coastal tidal and intertidal zones that provide important ecosystem services benefiting unique ecotourism pursuits for a wide range of tourist groups [1,2]. The cultural services provided by mangrove ecosystems are non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development and restoration, reflection, leisure and recreation, physical exercise, educational opportunities, cultural heritage, folklore medicines and extracts, and aesthetic experiences [2,3]. Thus, mangroves provide a myriad of opportunities for sustainable ecotourism by utilizing the cultural ecosystem services that form part of sustainable tourism pursuits. In turn, these contribute to mangrove conservation and to the growth of the overall tourism sector [1]. Mangrove ecotourism reflects a broader trend of valuing natural ecosystems for tourism while prioritizing responsible and sustainable practices [2,4,5]. Mangrove ecotourism is an important form of sustainable tourism that has gained global popularity, with approximately 3945 attractions in 93 countries [6].

Mangrove ecotourism represents an opportunity for a sustainable tourism experience that combines environmental conservation, cultural heritage, and economic development, catering to a growing market of environmentally conscious travelers. Mangrove ecotourism is based on recognizing mangrove ecosystems as valuable environments offering not just ecological benefits but also economic and social benefits [5]. Mangrove ecotourism provides a vast array of social and economic benefits that help provide sustainable livelihoods to local communities and gross domestic product (GDP) contributions to countries. Implementing mangrove ecotourism as a neoliberal approach can balance economic development, conservation, and community engagement, benefiting various stakeholders [7]. Through careful planning, stakeholder engagement, and environmental stewardship, mangrove ecotourism can generate economic benefits while conserving ecosystems and supporting local communities [7]. Mangrove ecotourism activities provide direct and indirect contributions towards efforts to achieve related sustainable development goals (SDGs) [1].

Mangroves play a crucial role in promoting ecotourism in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, encapsulating the values of conservation and development, offering unique and biodiverse landscapes that attract tourists seeking immersive nature experiences [8,9,10,11,12]. Ecotourism is widely seen as beneficial, focusing on nature and nature conservation, education, environmental preservation, and societal progress [13,14,15,16]. It is considered a positive economic pursuit for sustainability and is often discussed in connection with sustainable livelihoods [17,18]. The GCC countries recognize the importance of conserving their diverse ecosystems, such as deserts, mountains, sabkhas, and coastlines, to attract tourists [19,20]. Saudi Arabia and the UAE have witnessed significant ecotourism growth by promoting desert recreational activities and national parks [20,21], and Oman has become a leading hub for ecotourism, focusing on wildlife and attracting niche markets [17,22]. As tourists increasingly prioritize sustainable tourism and meaningful experiences, the GCC countries are integrating eco-friendly and cultural practices and promoting responsible tourism via regional policies [21]. This shift aligns with the region’s commitment to sustainability initiatives and educating residents and tourists about responsible tourism [21]. The ecotourism in the region has lately been enhanced by the development of smart cities such as the Neom Region and giga-projects dedicated to tourism, such as Red Sea Global (RSG) and the Royal Commission for Alula in Saudi Arabia. Thus, in the GCC countries, ecotourism has emerged as a key component of the region’s economic diversification strategy since the early 2000s, targeting environmentally conscious tourists [20].

The total mangrove extent in the GCC countries is 15,813 ha, predominantly occurring in Saudi Arabia (7710 ha, 48.8%) and the UAE (7445 ha, 47.1%) [23]. Mangroves in the GCC countries primarily consist of two species, Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata species, which are capable of withstanding the extremely hot climatic and environmental conditions [24,25]. Mangrove ecotourism is particularly suited to the GCC as these forests are the only natural evergreen forest in the region, one of which occurs in aesthetically unique coastal intertidal zones [26,27,28]. Mangroves in the GCC region are of paramount importance due to their ecological, economic, scientific, and cultural value [28,29,30,31,32]. Mangroves provide coastal protection, support fisheries, mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration, stabilize coastlines, and offer recreational and ecotourism opportunities [29,30,31,32]. They are also an important stopover feeding habitat for migratory birds traveling seasonally between Eurasia and Africa [33].

Despite their limited extent, the ecological and economic significance of mangroves underscores the urgent need for conservation efforts [23]. Mangroves in the GCC face severe threats from anthropogenic-climate-change-driven sea-level rises, coastal flooding and inundation, pollution, storm surges, and deforestation [25]. However, mangroves in the GCC region have shown some resilience and capacity to adapt to thermal and salinity extremes [27], and some areas have shown significant growth in recent years due to conservation and afforestation efforts [25,28]. Remote sensing tools that use machine learning modeling are invaluable in the monitoring and evaluation of the impact of ecotourism activities on mangrove ecosystems. These methods can also be used to track the impact of mangrove conservation and restoration efforts undertaken by international, national, and local community stakeholders [1,25]. Despite the documented threats to mangrove ecosystems in the GCC countries [25], mangrove ecotourism remains an important pillar of sustainable tourism, which contributes to the overall growth and diversification of the tourism sector in the GCC countries.

Tourism has become a significant tool for economic development and diversification among the GCC countries. The GCC countries are making substantial efforts to diversify their economies into other sectors such as real estate, finance, trade, logistics, and tourism [34,35]. Thus, the GCC countries have become attractive destinations for business, leisure, and medical tourism, benefiting from low crime rates, top medical facilities, and MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, and Exhibitions) initiatives [34]. Although oil has been the main pillar of the GCC economies since the 1970s, this economic diversification could be partly explained by increasing recognition since the early 2000s of oil being a finite resource and the negative impacts associated with using oil-related products [36]. Tourism as a whole has the ability to aid in social progress and economic growth through positive impacts on exports, labor, and capital [37]. As a labor-intensive sector, tourism contributes to the employment of people, enhancing GDP, the redistribution of wealth, and the improvement of the agricultural and transportation sectors, and it paves the way for economic diversification [34,38,39].

The GCC region has experienced significant growth in international tourism arrival, with numbers rising from 42.38 million in 2010 to 58.49 million in 2022 [40]. The total economic contribution of tourism and travel to the GDP of the GCC increased from USD 108.7 billion in 2012 to USD 146.8 billion in 2018 and is forecasted to reach USD 318.6 billion in 2027 [41]. Thus, the tourism sector is an area that is increasingly targeted by the GCC nations and makes up more than 10% of the economy in most GCC nations [42]. Even during the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism directly contributed to 6.2%, 2.4%, 2.1%, 2.0%, 1.4%, and <1% of the GDP of the UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait, respectively, in 2020 and 2021 [40]. Furthermore, tourism both directly and indirectly supported the growth of about 1,957,500 jobs in 2014 and about 2,864,000 jobs in 2015, demonstrating the increased economic diversification in the region and the potential for continued growth within the tourism industry [43].

Expanding research in different geographical regions of the world with mangrove cover is important for enhancing our understanding of human–environment interactions in mangrove ecotourism [2]. Mangrove ecotourism’s contribution to tourism growth, economic diversification, and mangrove conservation and restoration in the GCC countries is not well documented in the scientific literature. In addition, we are unaware of a comprehensive review that has described the full extent of mangrove ecotourism sites, attractions, values, and activities and the contribution of mangrove ecotourism to sustaining public and private sector conservation and restoration initiatives in the GCC region.

Therefore, this study aims to review the following: (1) the geographical and temporal distribution of studies in relation to mangrove extent, (2) key sites, attractions, and values for mangrove ecotourism activities, (3) the positive and negative impacts of mangrove ecotourism, and (4) existing mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives for the growth of mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries. We highlight the potential contributions of market-based initiatives such as the mangrove-based blue carbon market and mangrove-based ecopreneurship initiatives that can promote mangrove ecotourism. We examine the importance of using remote sensing and machine learning tools to monitor, evaluate, and report on the impact of ecotourism activities on mangrove ecosystems and inform sustainable mangrove management strategies. We document the study’s limitations and research gaps for future studies and propose recommendations for promoting and sustaining mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The GCC countries consist of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, and Kuwait (Figure 1). They occupy most of the western Arabian Peninsula, the Arabian Gulf to the east, and the Gulf of Oman to the southeast, adjacent to the other Middle East countries. The desert climate in the GCC countries is characterized by high temperatures of up to 50 °C, very low rainfall, and low humidity [44,45]. Although the terrain across the GCC countries is predominantly semi-arid to hyper-arid desert, many coastal areas are home to mangrove forests [25].

2.2. Data Collection

This study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [46] to document systematic reviews. We used the Google Scholar and Google search engine, Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS) databases to find articles related to mangrove ecotourism in the GCC. The reviewed articles covered all the countries in the GCC region, where the number of articles found varied per country and scale of study. Our search was limited to results on published documents in the English language from January 2010 through December 2023. The search strings used in the search expression consisted of defined criteria and keywords in English (Table 1). We conducted a code-based search query on Google Scholar using Python on the following website (https://serpapi.com/google-scholar-api) accessed on the 12 October 2023, and we examined the first 10 Google Scholar pages, resulting in 1000 articles (100 articles per page) because, beyond that, relevant articles are usually no longer retrieved [47]. This was complemented with a manual search through citation and reference networks to identify as many relevant articles as possible [47]. The searches utilized primary terms and their synonyms, as identified through Thesaurus functions (see Table 1). Additionally, search strings were tailored to accommodate the varying wildcard symbols (e.g., word truncation [*]) required by different databases.

To ensure a comprehensive literature search, we continued searching and identifying relevant articles in the reference list and by identifying articles that were cited in the search articles using citation networks and complementary searches in a backward and forward snowballing approach [47]. In cases where we were unable to obtain a full-text article through our library subscription, we sought to collect the full text from the authors.

The screening process was performed manually by one reviewer for the title and abstract screening (primary screening) and by two reviewers for the full-text screening (secondary screening). Reviewers were asked to follow the inclusion and exclusion criteria in Table 2 while screening the articles for the final decision. Articles that did not meet the aforementioned criteria were excluded and were not considered for further analysis, including non-English articles, reviews, or inaccessible articles. All articles retrieved from the entire literature search process were imported into Zotero and as an Excel sheet to avoid any loss or duplication. This study initially focused on the inclusion of peer-reviewed articles. However, due to the limited number of peer-reviewed articles, gray articles such as book chapters, blog posts, online newspapers, and theses were also considered. Figure 2 illustrates the workflow diagram representing the PRISMA literature review procedure used in this study.

The returned list from WoS, Scopus, and Google Scholar included 978 articles, of which 36 were removed during the early stage after filtering the duplicates. Next, 905 articles were removed after the two stages of the screening process. The final eligible list retrieved from the first search included 37 peer-reviewed articles. Finally, a manual search using the snowball sampling technique and Google was conducted, and 19 additional peer-reviewed and gray literature articles were obtained. The full systematic review process resulted in a final list of 55 articles (including 18 peer-reviewed articles and 37 items from the gray literature, which included 14 book chapters, 9 gray literature articles, 7 reports, 5 theses, and 2 conference papers), as presented in Figure 2.

The final 55 articles were subjected to a full-text review to extract targeted data to address the research objectives. The data were extracted into an excel sheet by two independent reviewers based on specific criteria and later reviewed for accuracy and robustness by the lead researcher. These included data related to the geographical and temporal distribution of the reviewed studies in relation to mangrove extent, key sites, attractions and values for mangrove ecotourism activities, threats and opportunities for mangrove ecotourism development, and existing initiatives supporting the growth of mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Studies in Relation to Mangrove Extent

3.1.1. Temporal Distribution of Studies

The majority of the articles used in this study were published between 2018 and 2023 (Figure 3). The highest number of publications were undertaken in the UAE, the nation with the second-highest mangrove extent and inbound international tourists and the highest direct tourism contribution to GDP. Nearly all the retrieved articles in the UAE consisted of the gray literature, which could be linked to the build-up to the 2023 United Nations Convention on Climate Change (COP—Conference of the Parties—28) and the fact that the nation announced plans to plant mangrove trees as a Nature-based Solution (NbS) to climate change mitigation in response to the COP28 conference [48,49]. The literature shows a clear transition in topics from 2018, when the focus was on environmental quality and restoration, to 2022, when there was a variety of interest in climate change and coastal zone livelihood. Therefore, the increase in the number of published articles on mangrove ecotourism and related mangrove conservation and restoration and tourism-driven economic diversification and growth is an indication of growing public interest and popularity in mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries.

3.1.2. Geographical Distribution of Studies in Relation to Mangrove Extent

Across the aforementioned countries and publications, the highest number of published papers per country was found in the United Arab Emirates (N = 18), with the second-highest mangrove extent; but, apart from this, there was no clear link between publication number and the total extent of mangrove cover per country. Qatar, with the second-highest number of publications (N = 9), has the third-highest mangrove extent, followed by Oman (N = 8) with the fourth-highest mangrove extent. Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, with seven publications, have the lowest and highest mangrove extent, respectively. No publications were retrieved for Kuwait, which has the lowest mangrove extent (though not widely documented). Multinational studies occurred as well, with the GCC as a whole mentioned six times, the Middle East/MENA region three times, and the Persian/Arabian Gulf three times. Some multinational studies that also mentioned the GCC countries were also observed in the literature and mostly focused on areas adjacent to the Gulf.

3.2. Mangrove Ecotourism Sites, Attractions, and Values

3.2.1. Mangrove Ecotourism Sites and Key Attractions/Activities

The GCC countries have several mangrove habitats and attractions that are used for ecotourism activities and are widely visited by tourists, and eight of these mangrove ecotourism sites were reported in the reviewed articles (Figure 4). The highest number of mangrove ecotourism attractions were reported in the nine published articles for Qatar, including mangrove sites in Doha, Al Khor, Al Thakhira, and the East Coast. Mangrove ecotourism attractions in Oman, with eight publications, were mainly reported to be found in mangroves in Al Batinah and Muscat. The seven publications for Bahrain reported mangrove attractions in the Tubli Bay and regions on the coastline in various areas. In Saudi Arabia, with seven publications, the mangrove ecotourism areas were reported in the Red Sea, Jizan, and Al Wajh (Table 3).

Mangrove forests provide broad and diverse ecotourism attractions to tourists, ranging from ecological to social to cultural activities (Table 3). The principal mangrove ecotourism activities included visits to mangrove forests, bird watching, corniche walks, water skiing, tours, kayaking, stand-up paddleboarding, and photography, amongst others. Most of these diverse ecotourism activities were reported in the UAE, Qatar, and Oman, with some of the largest areas of mangrove extent, but there was no clear relationship between the diversity of ecotourism activities and the size of mangrove extent per country because Saudi Arabia, with the highest mangrove extent, had the lowest diversity of ecotourism sites, attractions, and activities. Tree planting was also reported as an ecological ecotourism activity in the UAE following various voluntary mangrove reforestation and afforestation projects involving tourists. Mangrove forest ecotourism is growing in demand worldwide as tourists visit this unique ecosystem for hunting activities and the sighting of migratory birds [50].

The role of mangroves in ecotourism in the GCC countries lies in the immersive nature experiences they offer to tourists [8,10,11]. The unique biodiversity (e.g., fish, birds, animals, etc.) and geodiversity (e.g., shallow water channels, shallow muddy soils, etc.) resources of mangrove ecosystems attract various ecotourism activities such as birdwatching, nature walks, kayaking, and boat tours [51,52,53]. Ecotourism centered around mangroves also provides opportunities for educational and recreational experiences, fostering greater appreciation and understanding of these valuable ecosystems [9,54]. For instance, tides and shallow waters in the UAE provide a favorable environment and habitat for wading birds, thus improving the overall ecotourism experience [8]. Similarly, abundant biodiversity and geodiversity—including mangroves, dunes, and coral reef terraces—in the western and southern coasts of Saudi Arabia attract the development of resorts, which support ecotourism activities and experiences [55,56,57,58].

Mangrove ecotourism activities are also supported by the growing investment in tourism-related facilities. The infrastructure and amenities offered to the tourist customer segment should be aligned with nature and particular characteristics of the mangrove ecosystem [12,57]. For example, the integration of innovative design with nature (e.g., pedestrian boardwalks along different ecosystems), as seen in the Jubail Mangrove Park boardwalk [59], and the implementation of conservation strategies (i.e., renewable energy and habitat expansion) [60] provide interesting ecotourism attractions for a holistic tourism experience while minimizing ecological impact. The growing attraction to mangrove ecotourism activities in the GCC countries has been enhanced by the proximity and accessibility of the mangrove ecosystem to other tourist destinations, large cities, airports, and rural areas, thereby providing unique experiences for visitors [51,59].

The following table (Table 3) summarizes the mangrove ecotourism attractions to tourist, in various mangrove ecotourism sites.

Table 3

Mangrove ecotourism attractions/activities in the various mangrove ecotourism sites (NR: not reported).

Country	Mangrove Ecotourism Sites	Key Ecotourism Attractions/Activities	Reference Examples
UAE	Jubail mangrove park in Abu Dhabi, Ras Al Khor, Mangrove National Park in central Abu Dhabi, and Khor Muzahmi in Dubai	Visiting, clean-ups, and planting mangroves, national park visits and tours, corniche walks, bird watching, kayaking, water skiing, seabird and wetland tourism, nature walks, photography, wildlife watching, visits nature protected areas	[8,9,59]
Qatar	Al Fuwairit mangrove ecosystem in Doha, Al Khor, Al Thakhira, and the East Coast	Visiting, bird watching, corniche walks, coastline and beach activities, kayaking, stand-up paddleboarding, photography, exploring mangrove forests	[10,11]
Oman	Al Batinah, Masirah Island, and Muscat	Bird watching, wildlife tourism, angling, locally-guided fishing, spiritual and inspirational purposes, boat tours, camping, trekking	[22,49]
Bahrain	Tubli Bay and regions on the coastline	Tours and bird watching	[54]
Saudi Arabia	Red Sea, Jizan, and Al Wajh	Tours, bird watching, fishing, photography	[55]
Kuwait	NR	NR	NR

3.2.2. Mangrove Ecotourism Values

Mangrove-based ecotourism values encompass the diverse benefits derived from sustainably experiencing and conserving mangrove ecosystems. Figure 5 illustrates the mangrove ecotourism values as identified in the 55 reviewed articles and grouped under different thematic areas. The environmental values of mangroves include carbon sequestration, water filtration, conservation initiatives, and sustainable development values, which were reported in 39 out of the 55 final reviewed articles. The ecological values of mangrove ecosystems include mangroves serving as habitats for different flora (e.g., nests for birds, homes for fish), showing a high biodiversity of species, as reported in 30 articles. The economic values that were reported in 32 articles highlighted various benefits, including employment, income generation, and GDP contribution and optimization of economic benefits.

The cultural values of mangrove ecosystems focused on tourism or ecotourism values emphasized the importance of mangroves as a key focal point for ecotourism. The social values of mangrove ecotourism, as reported in 27 articles, included recreational tourism, visitor development, sustainable livelihoods, fish foods values, and human and community well-being and identity through educational awareness and their recreational value. The cultural values of mangrove ecosystems identified in the reviewed articles also included values related to the use of mangrove leaves, roots, and barks for medicinal purposes (Figure 5).

3.3. Impacts of Mangrove Ecotourism

3.3.1. Positive Impacts of Mangrove Ecotourism

The multifaceted benefits of mangrove ecotourism encompass economic, social, and environmental dimensions, including employment generation, livelihood provision, cultural heritage, education, and environmental stewardship (Table 4), thereby fostering socio-economic resilience and sustainable development within local communities in the GCC countries [61].

Economic impacts of mangrove ecotourism

The reviewed articles highlighted the significant positive relationships between mangrove ecotourism and economic growth and diversification within the GCC region [62,63,64,65]. By attracting tourists interested in exploring these unique coastal habitats, mangrove ecotourism generates employment opportunities for residents, ranging from tour guides and boat operators to hospitality staff and artisans selling locally made crafts [62,66,67]. For example, in Bahrain in 2016, tourism and travel indirectly generated 30,000 new jobs [53]. The revenue generated from ecotourism activities contributes to local economic development by supporting small businesses and stimulating growth in related sectors such as hospitality, infrastructure, and transportation development [12,57,68,69].

Table 4

Most reported positive impacts of mangrove ecotourism in the GCC region from the reviewed articles.

Category of Positive Impacts (Benefits)	Description of Constitutive Items	Reference Examples
Economic benefits	Employment opportunities	[62,66,67]
	Infrastructure and transportation development	[12,57,68]
	Economic growth and diversification	[62,63,64,65]
Environmental benefits	Preserving habitats for local and regional marine and bird species	[59,68,69]
	Fostering mangrove conservation and restoration (reforestation and afforestation) initiatives	[11,63]
	Regional cooperation enhancement on environmental management	[64]
	Creation of mangrove protected zones	[57,67]
Social/cultural benefits	Immersive nature experiences	[59,68,69]
	Connection with and experience of maritime heritage and traditional livelihoods	[59,68,69]

Social/cultural impacts of mangrove ecotourism

The reviewed articles also highlighted the positive relationships between mangrove ecotourism and social welfare and community empowerment within the GCC region [62,63,64,65]. The Jubail Mangrove Park in the UAE exemplifies the symbiotic relationships between mangrove ecotourism and socio-economic activity. The park enhances socio-economic well-being in the region by offering immersive nature experiences and connecting visitors with the UAE’s maritime heritage and traditional livelihoods. Moreover, by fostering the tourism sector, this park offers additional employment opportunities for local communities, such as tour guides, park rangers, and managers. Hence, the integration between natural aspects and the tourism sector enhances visitors’ knowledge and creates eco-cultural awareness among local communities [59,68,69]. Likewise, in Saudi Arabia, the Red Sea Project (TRSP) focuses on creating a vibrant society and new employment opportunities to boost the region’s economy. This was demonstrated by the integration of new infrastructure and activities around coastal areas, such as hotels, residences, marinas, bridges, and overwater villas [57]. Nevertheless, a memorable and unique tourist experience in mangrove ecotourism is one in which visitors not only remember the moment of connection with nature but treasure such moments in the long term, providing mental, spiritual, and physiological benefits [70]. Ultimately, the success of mangrove ecotourism not only enhances the socio-economic status of communities but also contributes to the overall prosperity and sustainability of the country and the broader GCC region.

Environmental impacts of mangrove ecotourism

Mangrove ecotourism when sustainably pursued and managed generates positive environmental impacts. Ecotourism amplifies the ecological importance of mangroves by raising awareness of their habitat and species conservation to sustain ecotourism activities [59,68,69]. Ecotourism initiatives in the GCC countries play a crucial role in fostering environmental stewardship among locals and visitors alike—not least through country-specific projects championed by the GCC governments [10,19,52,55]. The increased environmental awareness and knowledge among visitors, locals, and stakeholders significantly empower many restoration programs and projects. For instance, in the UAE, recent extensive mangrove restoration projects and planting efforts have taken place in one of the largest mangrove areas [71]. Similarly, mutual benefits from restoration plans were shown in Abu Dhabi, where planting initiatives in Jubail Island have enhanced the ecotourism sector in the region. In turn, investments in the ecotourism sector emphasized the importance of mangrove protection, reforestation, and restoration [72]. Similarly, in Bahrain, mangrove restoration and protection were associated with a positive ecotourism trend, creating more opportunities for recreation and environmental awareness [73]. Collective efforts are geared towards coastal area management, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable nature-based tourism development, which contribute to the socio-economic benefits of ecotourism and bolster regional development [66,74].

3.3.2. Negative Impacts of Mangrove Ecotourism

Ecotourism development is also associated with profound negative impacts on mangrove ecosystems at large if not well planned and managed. Though the burgeoning ecotourism industry in the GCC countries offers numerous environmental benefits, it can also pose negative impacts on mangrove ecosystems. Without adequate management and regulation, the influx of tourists may exert significant pressure on mangroves, potentially leading to habitat destruction, pollution, and disturbance to wildlife [56,65,75]. Increased foot traffic, waste generation, and construction of infrastructure for tourism facilities can disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems and degrade their quality over time [10,49,66]. Activities such as unregulated water sports, overfishing, and uncontrolled waste disposal can exacerbate environmental degradation and threaten biodiversity within mangrove ecosystems [59,66,76]. The GCC countries are predominantly affected by the increased number of tourists/population participating in ecotourism activities. This increased number is associated with a high risk of damage to mangrove ecosystems. This damage is eventually accelerated by the development with fluctuating and/or increasing populations interested in participating in ecotourism. Therefore, the presence of additional infrastructure is crucial to support it.

3.3.3. Anthropogenic Stressors That Negatively Impact Mangrove Ecosystems and Ecotourism

Urbanization and development and anthropogenic climate change are the two most important factors threatening mangrove ecosystems and ecotourism (N = 16), as reported in the reviewed articles (Table 5). Pollution from sewage disposal and poor water quality (heavy metal presence, eutrophication), land degradation, oil spills, and coastal erosion are also important anthropogenic stressors threatening the sustenance of mangrove ecosystems and ecotourism, especially when such development activities are not properly managed [8,63,76,77,78,79]. Adjacent coastal infilling or dredging can disrupt the natural hydrodynamic regime to which mangroves are incredibly sensitive [80].

Although coastal infrastructure development brings negative impacts on mangrove ecosystems through the direct destruction of mangroves or indirectly through untreated waste disposal, it is important to also note that not all land development/change impacts mangroves negatively. Within the UAE in the 1980s, channels were dredged to reduce salinity; in turn, mangroves have thrived. In Khor Dubai, sewage from wastewater treatment plants has supported mangrove growth [27]. Urbanization involving infrastructure and transportation development does have negative impacts, but there are positive, unintentional effects as well. Nonetheless, proactive measures and sustainable management practices to mitigate human-induced threats and challenges to mangroves are imperative to ensure the long-term sustainability of these ecosystems and associated ecotourism attractions and activities in the GCC countries.

3.4. Existing Mangrove Conservation and Restoration Initiatives for the Growth of Mangrove Ecotourism

As mentioned previously, ecotourism in the GCC countries has had a significant and positive impact on the mangrove ecosystem, fostering mutual benefits between the two. The presence of ecotourism activities has sought to raise awareness about the importance of mangroves, leading to increased conservation efforts and protection measures [49,63]. Many GCC countries have launched initiatives to enhance mangrove ecotourism due to its economic, ecological, and social benefits. Initiatives around economic diversification towards ecotourism development are driven by efforts to offset the revenue loss from the declining oil industry [81]. All the GCC states have made concerted efforts to promote sustainable ecotourism, particularly since the 2014 drop in oil prices, aiming to reduce financial strain on the government and conserve resources [81]. Mangrove planting (afforestation and reforestation) in degraded coastal areas have been taking place in the Arabian Gulf countries over the past three decades to restore mangrove forests and the services these provide [82]. The GCC governments have prioritized mangrove protection, conservation, and restoration projects, which enhance ecotourism opportunities and can inform future initiatives and ensure successful mangrove restoration and ecotourism management [10,67,78].

Qatar has placed significant emphasis on tourism, ecotourism, and geotourism, allocating resources to developing ecotourism sites such as caves, islands, beaches, and sand dunes [68]. This commitment is evident in the expansion of its natural reserves, now covering 23% of the country’s total area [12]. Agencies like the Qatar Tourism Authority and National Tourism Council highlight Qatar’s drive to become a leading ecotourism destination [12]. As part of the Qatar National Vision 2030, the country prioritizes environmental sustainability, which includes mangrove conservation through protected areas and national parks. Projects such as the National Park Project [10], Qatar Tourism Authority and National Tourism Council initiatives [12], the Blue Belts Project [11], and the Pear Island Project [83] align with Qatar’s National Vision 2030, highlighting the balance between social, economic, and environmental development [78]. For example, Qatar’s Blue Belts Project, which involves establishing a mangrove barrier along the coast, focusing particularly on nature reserves and areas where mangrove ecosystems already exist, will contribute to the enhancement and conservation of the wider mangrove ecosystem within the region [11]. The Al Fuwairit mangrove ecosystem project in Qatar is leveraging the economic benefits of ecotourism to establish itself as a globally recognized conservation site and mangrove-based ecotourism destination [11]. The Mangroads project in Al Thakira reflects the integration of mangroves with infrastructure design to enable easy access to mangrove areas for ecotourism [84] based on the nature-based tourism concept as a key aspect to enhance the urban and natural environment [11]. This synergistic relationship highlights the interconnectedness between ecotourism and mangroves, where mangrove conservation enhances the attractiveness and sustainability of mangrove-based ecotourism.

In the UAE, mangrove conservation and restoration projects are particularly noteworthy. The UAE is committed to planting 100 million mangrove trees by 2030 through various initiatives such as the Jubail Island Investment Company’s strategic agreements, Al Zohrah City’s pledges, and Emirates Nature WWF’s restoration and preservation efforts [69]. Within this framework, the UAE aims to plant 350,000 seedlings at Jubail Island, home to Jubail Mangrove Park, which was announced at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) [72]. Ras al-Khaimah is enhancing its ecotourism with activities such as bird watching and kayaking, supported by development plans from the RAK Department of Antiquities and Museums [9]. National strategies integrate mangrove conservation into climate adaptation and tourism plans, reflecting the UAE’s commitment to sustainability [85]. Initiatives contributing to biodiversity protection and ecotourism in the UAE encompass the Marine Environment Rehabilitation Program [27], the National Ecotourism Project [86], the Ghars Al Emarat Planting Initiative [50], and the implementation of Environmental Management Plans [8,71]. These projects collectively aim to support the cultivation of mangrove seedlings [27], establish the UAE as a major hub for ecotourism [84], and enforce buffer zones and greening plans to safeguard biodiversity, including the protection of mangrove zones [8,71]. Over time, in some areas, afforestation efforts may lead to an increase in biodiversity, mirroring characteristics similar to natural mangrove sites that promote ecotourism [87].

Saudi Arabia promotes mangrove conservation through the Saudi Green Initiative, part of Vision 2030, focusing on mangrove planting and restoration along the Red Sea coast. Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 propels transformative projects such as the Red Sea Project and NEOM [55,57,88,89] focusing on sustainable development and the conservation of marine and terrestrial ecosystems. RSG, a multi-project developer in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is one of the world’s pioneers of luxury regenerative tourism destinations such as the Red Sea and Amaala; its mission is aligned with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030. RSG is on track to plant around 50 million mangrove trees by 2030 and establish mangrove parks [90] as a strategy to penetrate the tourism market with a sustainability focus [6,91]. This plan provides a clear pathway to achieve their corporate social responsibility and sustainability goals while improving their corporate image, all of which will be translated into an increase in the company’s value. The King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) supports these efforts with research on mangrove ecosystems, informing conservation policies and projects [92].

Oman’s Mangrove Management Project focuses on restoring degraded mangrove areas to promote ecotourism, integrating mangrove conservation into coastal management and tourism strategies [93]. Similarly, Oman’s projects, including coastal protection [63], integrated coastal management [94], and nature reserve initiatives [95], demonstrate a multifaceted approach that balances economic diversification and environmental conservation.

Bahrain’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) targets mangrove planting and rehabilitation to support biodiversity and attract ecotourism [96]. Kuwait’s Environment Public Authority (KEPA) leads efforts to restore mangroves with pilot projects along the coast, supported by environmental regulations promoting mangrove conservation and ecotourism [97]. Bahrain’s commitment to ecological preservation, as evidenced by the establishment of ecological reserves [51] and initiatives promoting ecosystem management and sustainable urban development practices [54,73], aligns with the broader goals of environmental conservation.

In addition, regional efforts towards climate change mitigation, sustainable development, and environmental preservation through projects and initiatives across the GCC countries reinforce a commitment to protecting and preserving the region’s natural heritage. Central to regional conservation and environmental management efforts is the Regional Organization for the Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) agreement among the GCC countries, Iran, and Iraq. This agreement fosters regional cooperation around various aspects of environmental management to minimize the adverse impacts of ecotourism activities [64]. ROPME forms the basis for a unified approach in coastal management, fisheries, pollution control, biodiversity conservation, and marine emergencies. These initiatives reflect a robust commitment to coastal environmental management that involves mangrove protection, conservation, and restoration, thereby promoting sustainable ecotourism and economic diversification.

Overall, mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives in the GCC region are being promoted as nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation (nature–climate solutions) for a more sustainable environment in 2050 [19]. NbS promotes sustainable development and effective ecosystem resilience and adaptation to climate change, thereby ensuring the long-term viability of coastal ecosystems and communities and associated ecotourism benefits in the GCC region [19]. By emphasizing the importance of mangrove conservation for ecotourism, governments can leverage these natural assets to drive sustainable economic growth and development [11,19,54,59].

4. Potential Market-Based Initiatives for the Growth of Mangrove Ecotourism

4.1. Mangrove-Based Blue Carbon Market Initiatives That Promote Mangrove Ecotourism

Business opportunities have arisen to enhance mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives through the development of mangrove-based blue carbon markets. Mangrove restoration initiatives contribute to increasing blue carbon sequestration and storage, which can be measured and verified to generate high-quality blue carbon credits that can be traded in the carbon markets to generate additional income for governments and local communities [98,99]. However, it is worth noting that the focus should always be on conserving old-growth forests. For example, mangroves may contain more than a thousand tons of carbon per hectare, which has accumulated in their soils over millennia. Removing these forests will result in the rapid mass release of carbon. Planting new forests cannot compensate for such losses on a timescale short enough to mitigate the immediate climate emergency. Blue carbon credit finance can be used to conserve, restore, and sustain mangrove ecosystems while providing livelihood improvements and economic security to mangrove-dependent communities and governments [100].

Ecotourism and tourism companies are important stakeholders in blue carbon and REDD development projects [101,102]; thus, they could play different roles in the supply and demand dynamics of mangrove-based carbon credits. On one hand, direct and indirect economic benefits are expected to be earned by the mangrove forest manager/land owner where a mangrove carbon project could be developed, which requires integration with a carbon developer, the government, and verification bodies. On the other hand, ecotourism projects could be a source of demand for carbon credits. For instance, in the case of the giga-project of RSG in Saudi Arabia, the King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center (KAPSARC) pointed out that Saudi companies with net-zero targets are expected to be key sources of demand of carbon credits under the voluntary Saudi GHG Credit and Offsetting Scheme. This demonstrates the recent interest of a GCC country in CCMs and VMCs and shows the dual role (supplier and buyer) that mangrove carbon developer companies could play in the mangrove-based carbon market [78,103]. The above will depend on the complexity and size of the ecotourism/tourism company and the mangrove-based carbon project characteristics.

4.2. Mangrove-Based Ecopreneurship Initiatives That Promote Mangrove Ecotourism

Sustainability and sustainable development could be seen as a source of entrepreneurial opportunities in a world where climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental concerns are now dominant global discourses. Ecopreneurs emerge as entrepreneurs with more awareness of environmental issues and that develop their business operations or establish sustainable business models under the triple bottom line model of economic, social, and environmental sustainability [104]. Ecopreneurs, while trying to solve environmental issues for governments and local communities, harness new markets such as ecotourism [104,105,106]. The implementation of the ecopreneurship concept in mangrove forests means the utilization of mangrove products and their ecosystem services for business while conserving the biodiversity and the sustainability of the entire ecosystem; namely, ecopreneurship businesses could be mangrove-based ecotourism, culinary, and souvenir businesses. The GCC countries’ environmental and net-zero vision, such as Saudi Arabia with the RSG project and the UAE with the National Ecotourism project, are positioning themselves as innovation and ecopreneurship hubs in the region [107,108] that could be attractive for ecopreneurs and entrepreneurs in general. Additionally, entrepreneurship competitions and training opportunities, such as the “Ecopreneurship program” by Sharjah Entrepreneurship Center (Sheraa) in the UAE are inspiring ecopreneurs in the region; the winners of the program were announced in the framework of COP28 2023 in Dubai.

Previous case studies in Kilim Karst Geoforest Park (mangrove forest in Langkawi, Malaysia) and Kabani (ecopreneur organization in the Thrikkaipetta area in south India) have shown a strong linkage between mangrove ecotourism, ecotourism, and ecopreneurship practices [109,110,111]. Ecopreneurship’s backbone lies in a profit-oriented approach that considers environmental sustainability, where every product, service, or technology offered should address an environmental issue [109,112]. It is of paramount importance to note that for generating a suitable ecopreneurship business model in mangrove ecotourism, the involvement of the local communities and the building of synergies within the stakeholders of the mangrove ecosystem is essential [110,111]. Local communities can benefit from mangrove ecopreneurship by leveraging mangrove ecotourism areas as a source of income that can be used to supplement their livelihood through shrimp and crab catching and fishing [112].

Customer (tourist) satisfaction should be a priority for mangrove ecotourism operators, as satisfaction is associated with the positive feeling generated by a particular product or service experience [113]. Additionally, such unique visitor experiences will be translated into tourists’ willingness to spend more [114], where customers’ environmental beliefs and attitudes are also connected with the willingness to pay (WTP) a premium in the case of luxury ecotourism (e.g., the ‘Red Sea’ Global project in Saudi Arabia). Therefore, assuring tourist experience through customer satisfaction is crucial for either established ecotourism companies that want to expand their portfolio of services and move into the mangrove-based ecotourism sector (new business line) or ecopreneurs who want to explore opportunities in the sector. Hence, business ideas and entrepreneurial endeavors based on the customers’ requirements that will generate value in the service while measuring satisfaction will have a greater probability of success in the market [115]. Furthermore, mangrove ecotourism business and organizations managers (e.g., Sea Hawk Tours, Noukhada Adventure Company, Emirates Marine Environmental Group, Companies for Good, and Connect with Nature in the UAE [94]) should study the attributes that generate satisfaction in tourists in order to meet their expectations and have an impact in the WTP more for a sustainable service [114].

5. Application of Remote Sensing to Monitor the Impact of Mangrove Ecotourism Activities

The reviewed articles highlighted the role of state-of-art techniques such as remote sensing tools in the monitoring and evaluation of ecotourism activities and their impact on mangrove ecosystems in the GCC countries. Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology and moderate- and high-resolution satellite imageries (e.g., Landsat, Aster, Quickbird, etc.) were used to map mangrove distribution and health in the Red Sea region of Saudi Arabia to support the potential development of tourism attractions, including aquariums and diving centers [55]. The application of LiDAR technology to mangrove restoration and ecotourism development in the Red Sea Project in Saudi Arabia is in line with the country’s commitment to improving the tourism sector and attracting global tourist visitation [57], similar to the NEOM Region [87]. In Oman, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and satellite imagery were used to monitor multiple ecotourism activities such as marine sports, diving, and cultural trips [116]. The integration of GIS and an Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) decision-making tool was used in a land suitability spatial assessment study on Masirah Island in Oman to evaluate ecotourism potential [116].

Technology integration in mangrove ecotourism across the GCC holds immense potential for the sector’s improvement and growth by attracting environmentally conscious tourists. GIS and remote sensing tools can be used for creating interactive and virtual reality maps for tourists, providing insights regarding locations of mangrove ecosystems and cultural heritage sites. This is especially relevant in countries where ecotourism is concentrated on natural activities, such as Oman [116]. Such applications can be further developed into wearable devices offering educational services that help explain the paramount importance of mangroves not only in the GCC countries [68]. Smart mobile applications can be developed to provide visitors with personalized and tailored recommendations for mangrove ecotourism activities through leveraging artificial intelligence and data analytics [68]. For example, tourists interested in exploring biodiversity can be advised to visit mangrove zones with diverse fauna and flora, while passive tourists may be directed to simple activities such as site-seeing via boats. Therefore, integrating remote sensing tools with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms for optimizing conservation, restoration, and afforestation while incorporating ecotourism as one of the facets is crucial.

6. Limitations of the Study

Some flaws in the methodology could have limited the available literature search results and undermined the robustness of the results. Although this study follows the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, the search was limited only to English-language publications between January 2010 and December 2023, which may have excluded relevant studies published in Arabic (the official language of the GCC countries) or studies published pre 2010. The inclusion of the gray literature (N = 37) may have compromised data extraction efforts in the different thematic areas, since they usually contain less detailed information as desired or needed. Moreover, the reliance on the Google and Google Scholar search engine and Scopus and WoS databases for article retrieval may not have included all the available literature related to mangrove ecotourism in the GCC region, although it is unlikely that there was a potential exclusion of relevant studies from other databases and search engines.

7. Research Gaps for Future Studies

• The relatively low (N = 55) number of articles, especially peer-reviewed (N = 18) and gray articles (N = 37), focused on mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries highlights the need for further national and regional scientific research efforts on the topic.

• Mapping of all the key mangrove sites and attractions used for ecotourism activities in more detail in the different GCC countries.

• There is an urgent need to identify the vulnerability of the newly developed mangrove conservation and restoration sites to ecotourism activities and modeling under future anthropogenic (land use projections) and climate change scenarios.

• Use of remote sensing and ensemble machine learning model to improve the assessment and projection of sea level rises, flooding, and coastal erosion hazards and to estimate their combined impacts on ecotourism.

• Quantification in GDP terms per country of the actual contribution of mangrove ecotourism to the overall economic growth of the tourism sector should be researched and included in future studies.

8. Recommendations for Improved Mangrove Conservation and Ecotourism Development

• Sustainable data-driven land use planning and zoning to reduce the risks of anthropogenic stressors and restrict the further development of infrastructure into coastal ecosystems, especially mangrove habitats. This approach is expected to increase significantly through to 2030 in order to protect mangrove ecosystem attractions and ecotourism activities.

• Continuous integration and implementation of the concept of NbS into mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives is crucial to the coastal ecosystem management and sustainability of mangrove ecotourism.

• Expanding the use of high-resolution satellite, UAV, and LiDAR data for the accurate mapping of mangrove ecosystems and ecotourism-related impacts on coastal ecosystems is important for accurate ecological loss/gain and conservation/restoration assessment.

• Leveraging the mangrove-based blue carbon market and ecopreneurship initiatives as potential contributors to sustainable ecotourism development.

• Investing in infrastructure and amenities to support ecotourism activities in mangrove areas that can enhance visitor experiences while generating employment opportunities, income for local communities, increased revenue, and economic diversification within the region [57,117].

9. Conclusions

The mangroves of the GCC countries are amongst the smallest in area compared to other sub-regions in Asia, but they constitute important ecosystems attracting ecotourism activities. Mangrove-ecotourism-related recreation and leisure, education, and spiritual activities are important components of the cultural services provided by mangrove ecosystems. The popularity of mangrove ecotourism and interest in the conservation and restoration of mangrove ecosystems peaked in 2023 following the UN Climate Change Conference hosted by the UAE (the country with the second-highest mangrove extent and highest number of peer-reviewed and gray articles). We did not find any articles focused on Kuwait, which may be attributable to the country’s negligible mangrove extent. A total of eight most visited mangrove ecotourism sites were reported in the literature, with the highest number reported in the UAE and Qatar, with diverse attractions/activities and values. Despite the significant economic, social, and environmental benefits of mangrove ecotourism, appreciable negative impacts related to increased mangrove ecotourism visitations and unsustainable ecotourism activities and anthropogenic stressors can undermine the resilience of mangrove ecosystems and associated ecotourism attractions in the GCC countries. The negative impacts of ecotourism activities on mangrove ecosystems and sustainable ecotourism can be addressed by prioritizing sustainable land use planning and zoning that are integrated into coastal environmental management following the NbS approach. The existing country-level mangrove conservation and restoration initiatives and the ecotourism development projects in the UAE, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia are laudable initiatives that exemplify government commitment to coastal ecosystem management and the enhancement of mangrove ecotourism. Market-based initiatives such as the mangrove-based blue carbon market and mangrove-based ecopreneurship offer optimum opportunities to diversify the development and promotion of sustainable mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries. The use of remote sensing tools is invaluable in the monitoring of mangrove ecosystems and associated ecotourism impacts to inform evidence-based conservation and restoration management approaches. Mangrove ecotourism offers promising opportunities for the GCC region by supporting economic, conservation, and environmental protection and local livelihood development benefits.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.M.; methodology, L.G.M. and E.B.E.; writing—original draft preparation, L.G.M., N.E.B., S.A.L.K., L.S., and J.F.M.; writing—review and editing, L.G.M., N.E.B., S.A.L.K., L.S., J.F.M., and E.B.E.; review and editing, M.M., J.A.B., M.S.W., S.U., S.A.C., S.M.R., T.A., B.K.V., P.S.P.A., J.A.A., F.S., A.S., M.L.P.P., N.E., A.N., M.M.A., A.A., T.A.-A., and A.C.; visualization, L.G.M., J.E.H., and E.B.E.; supervision, E.B.E. and M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

We are thankful to Willie Doaemo, Anjitha Gopi, Abhilash Dutta Roy, and Raluca Diaconu, who contributed to the review of the article.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Lara G. Moussa, Midhun Mohan, Nicola Burmeister, Shalini A. L. King, Jorge F. Montenegro, Pavithra S. Pitumpe Arachchige, and Ewane Basil Ewane were employed by ecoresolve, Michael S. Watt was employed by Scion, Adrián Cardil was employed by Tecnosylva, Stefanie M. Rog was employed by the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU), Amin Shaban was employed by the National council for scientific research, Anna Novo was employed by the Forest Research Centre of Lourizán. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 1. Geographical location of the Gulf Cooperation Council countries.

Figure 2. Workflow diagram representing the systematic literature review process.

Figure 3. Number of publications focused on mangrove ecotourism in the GCC countries between January 2010 to December 2023.

Figure 4. Location of key mangrove ecotourism sites in the GCC countries, as reported in the literature.

Figure 5. Different mangrove-ecotourism-related values and the number of publications mentioning each value category.

Table 1

Search expressions considered for the systematic literature search.

Criteria	Search Expression
What	“Mangrove*”
	AND
Where	“Gulf Cooperation Council” OR “GCC” OR “Gulf countries” OR “Bahrain” OR “Kuwait” OR “Oman” OR “Qatar” OR “Saudi Arabia” OR “United Arab Emirates” OR “UAE” OR “Arabian Gulf” OR “Persian Gulf” OR “Middle East” OR “MENA”
	AND
How	“Ecotourism” OR “Eco-tourism” OR “Tourism” OR “Nature-based tourism” OR “Sustainable tourism” OR “Mangrove tourism”
	FROM
When	January 2010 to December 2023

Table 2

Eligibility criteria for exclusion and inclusion decision in the literature review.

GCC Region (Yes/No)	Mangroves (Yes/No)	Ecotourism (Yes/No/Unclear)	Decision
Yes	Yes	Yes/Unclear	Include
No	Yes	Yes	Exclude
Yes	No	Yes	Exclude
Yes	Yes	No	Exclude

Table 5

Anthropogenic stressors that negatively impact mangrove ecosystems and ecotourism activities in the GCC countries, including the number of publications that reported each stressor.

Anthropogenic Stressors Negatively Impacting Mangrove Ecosystems and Ecotourism Activities	Number of Publications Reporting Each Stressor
Climate change	16
Development and urbanization	16
Pollution and sewage	8
Low water quality	7
Land degradation and LULC	5
Oil spills	4
Coastal erosion	3
Deforestation and grazing	3
Overfishing	1

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