Material Transformation Analysis of Mosques in Herat Old City, Afghanistan

Abstract

This study aimed to find out the distribution, destructions, developments, transformations, and processes of changes of mosques after WWII in Herat Old City, which is a medieval city still preserved and standing. One hundred and eight mosques were constructed, 2 of them were demolished, and 106 still exist. Twenty-eight are modern mosques, and 80 are traditional. Twenty-two out of 80 are preserved, 56 have been transformed, and 2 were damaged, or demolished. Modern mosques are mainly located in the second and fourth quarters, while traditional mosques are distributed in all four quarters. The transformation started in the 1950s after WWII, continued in the 1970s, 1990s, and 2000s, and has occurred in all four quarters, slightly higher in the second and fourth quarters. Through a field survey, data were collected, findings were combined, unified, and plotted on the map, and the mosques were categorized based on building material.

1. Background

1.1. Background on Mosques

In Islam, the Masjid is an area where prayer is performed by Muslim worshipers, the first institution of Islam, and its mirror. In addition to being the crucible of Muslim civilization, it is the parliament and university of a country. Mosques have been Islam’s foundation, one of their major pillars and the center of social and political life (AbulQaraya 2015 [1]; Hillenbrand 2012 [2]). The prophet urged his Umma (nation) to attend Mosque constantly, and hold Jammat (Hadith [3]). Prophet Mohammad, PBUH, also said, “Whoever builds a mosque for Allah, Allah will build for him a house like it in Paradise” (Al-Bukhari 1990 [4], Muslim 1955 [5]).

Mosques have several social and cultural functions in Islamic cities. Mosques have functioned as praying centers, kinds of schools, pre-elementary schools, councils, centers for ceremonies, political stages, governmental loudspeakers, etc.

In Islamic holy texts, the Quran and the Hadith, value is placed on education and science. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) taught Muslims that education is necessary for every man and woman, which was a noble idea at the time and even now. Muslims enjoyed a high literacy rate due to the emphasis on learning and education as part of the world. Schools gave children a good understanding of Islamic law and analysis and brought scholars from different classes and backgrounds together to share ideas. Later in the Golden age, this process of education was formalized by Madrasas inside the mosques. Mosques, Khaneqah, schools, and libraries existed in a single complex, some of which became the first universities to give formal certificates of higher education in Islamic countries. Al-Azhar in Egypt, Medina in Saudi Arabia, and Jamie Herat in Afghanistan are a few examples.

1.2. Background on Study Area

The city of Herat, Afghanistan, has long been of strategic, commercial, and cultural significance to the broader region. Although the city has developed extensively in modern times and has suffered the ravages of conflict, the site is unique. It has largely retained its historical footprint, and many significant Islamic monuments have survived (UNESCO 2004 [6]). Home to 830 historical sites, Herat is rich in history and culture (Habibi 1985 [7], Najimi 1988 [8]). The region of Herat (Figure 1a) is like an oasis situated in a valley and surrounded by mountains. Herat is mentioned as Haraiwa in the book of Avesta, in the 7–6th century B.C. In Sanskrit, it is written as Saraya (for Arya). In Greek inscriptions, as Artacoana. These documents demonstrate that Herat was an ‘important city’, which existed in 500 BC during the Achaemenids (Najimi 1988 [8], Reindeke 1976 [9], Seljuki 1964 [10]).

Herat (known as Pearl of Khurasan, Figure 1b) developed into a square shape during the reign of the Achaemenid king Darius (Asfazari 1960 [11]). According to Arab geographers in the early 10th century, Herat had a square layout enclosing a citadel. It had the main wall, a moat around the exterior wall, a fire temple (Zoroastrian) to the North of Herat Old City (hereafter, the Old City), and a Christian church (Najimi 1988 [8]). In the late fifteenth century, the surrounding city wall (Shahrband) was described as a prosperous region by Asfazari. The northern part of the citadel was connected to the Baa-ra (meaning attachments to the square shape of Old City were not added; Herat still had a square-shaped layout).

Kurt Kings conducted restorations during the Il-Khanate Mongols after the residents evacuated the city for a half-century due to the Kengiz Khan attack in AD 1217. Shahrukh then reconstructed it after Timur Lane, his father, ruined the city in AD 1376. “Shahrukh, and Baiqera, the Timurid Kings, restored the Old City, and Queen Gauharshad Begum constructed Musalla Complex. Herat experienced a renaissance in the late 14th century, during the Timurids (UNESCO 2004 [6])”. The Safavids carried out heavy construction, but the Durranids limited construction (Asim and Ando 2020 [12]). Musallah was demolished by Amir A. R Khan. General Hayat Khan, a commander of King M. Zahir (1933–1973), destroyed the Herat Citadel and removed some of its bricks (Heravi 2005 [13], Najimi 1980 [14]) and Heravi reported that the same General destroyed the city wall (Heravi 2005 [13]). Later, during M. Dawud (1973–78), the citadel fell into more disrepair, and the government launched a joint preservation program with UNESCO and the technical support of an Italian professor, Brune, in 1976.

Herat Old City is a unique area where the Herat Arg; Ekhteyaruddin Citadel, Herat Grand Mosque, Khirqa, water supply cisterns, mosques, and several Takiya Khana have survived, and the city wall existed until the 1950s (Najimi 1988 [8], Al-Heravi 2004 [15]). Niedermeyer marked the infrastructural monuments, which included administrative and governmental buildings, the office of the Herat Governor, the city wall, Jewish settlements, fields (Maidain-e Sorina; sports field), food and stock centers, government services, and 20 cisterns, among other monuments, in Herat Old City’s map of his reports (Niedermeyer, 1924 [16]).

The layout of the city of Herat was delineated by massive earthen walls (Baa-ra) that protected the bazaars (shops) and residential quarters. The town was enclosed by its walls until the middle of the 20th century, at which point outside buildings for administration were built. The historic quarters remained home to some residents until the middle of the 20th century, and the town was confined within its walls until administrative buildings were constructed outside. The residents returned to their homes after the turmoil in 1992 and began rebuilding (AKTC [17], Jodidio 2017 [18]).

As in Figure 1, Nieder Von Oskar Meyer plotted many public buildings and open spaces in his research of Herat in 1916–17 (Meyer 1924 [16]), which were later demolished after World War II in the mid-20th century (Najimi 1988 [8]). It was found that 4 modern mosques were developed in the same area, indicating the latest developments after the 1950s. Although the 2nd quarter has roots in ancient developments, it is also the newest redeveloped quarter that urbanized recently after the administrative buildings were transformed into residential houses.

Figure 1

Study area, based on Meyer’s data [16], reproduced by authors, 2023.

[Figure omitted. See PDF]

1.3. Purpose and Methodology

This study intends to reveal the destructions, modifications, restorations, and modernizations of mosques that occurred in the Old City in the decades following World War II. The study also explores the way traditional mosques were transformed into modern structures and offers a classification of mosques according to the materials that were applied. As a result of this study, some of the issues surrounding Old City quarter developments are expounded. It explores historical maps of Meyer, Rajayee, and Najimi, reviews written documents to determine the transition time of administrative buildings to residential houses, its effect on construction, and how the mosques changed over time.

One of the most serious threats to the physical integrity of the Old City, according to the Herat strategic master plan for Herat City, is the process of modernization of buildings in the city (Loda et al., 2013 [19]). Traditional houses, mosques, shops, and landscapes are transformed in the Old City of Herat due to urbanization, economic growth, and lifestyle changes through 2001–21. Material transformation analysis can set a foundation for the treatment of mosques, which is needed for future studies and can contribute to policies that can halt further transformation and enhance the preservation of mosques.

In addition to the literature review in the lab, we collected on-site data and performed spatial analysis in GIS using data collected during the first survey covering the Quzzat (Bardurani) quarter and measurements of case studies that were conducted in April–July 2021, and another survey, which covered the other three-quarters of the study area and rechecked the first quarter that was conducted in 2023. First, we conducted a library-based study to find written documents, including papers and books. Second, the archive records of related government administrations were investigated to find changes, origins, constructions, reconstructions, restorations, and maintenance.

The GPS (Global Positioning System) points of each mosque were recorded during the field survey and were inserted in GIS (Global Positioning System, ArcGIS 12.4) software to find the mosque’s location on Old City’s map. Through the field survey, the inscriptions, notes, and recordings of each mosque were collected, and photos were taken for further analysis. We collected data, took measurements, and found all mosques; finally, the findings are combined, unified, and plotted on the map of the Old City. The primary data used in this study are collected from two field surveys conducted in 2021, and 2023. First, the maps from studies conducted by Najimi and Rajayee alongside the findings from this study were reproduced to compare the changes and analyze the situation. Then, the mosques are divided into different categories based on building materials. Finally, the changes and transformations of mosques are divided into five periods. Each period had some effect on modernization, destruction, restoration, and transformation.

The following characteristics distinguish this study from others: based on referring to past studies and conducting a field survey. The field survey addresses the succeeding issues inside the Old City: (1) it comprehensively covers all mosques, (2) finds the spatial situation of the mosques, (3) discovers the recent developments and recently urbanized areas based on the construction of the modern mosques, (4) explains destructions, transformations, changes and the subsequent changes to the Old City’s traditional mosques.

2. Preservation Measures in Afghanistan, and Herat

2.1. Historical Overview

After the UNESCO office in Kabul was established in 1948 (UNESCO 2011 [20]), no serious measures of preservation were taken for the mosques by the government. Only the citadel and minarets (Musalla Complex) were restored by UNESCO in the 1970s. The country was invaded by the Soviet Union in the 1980s, and then engaged in an internal war until the 9/11 attacks resulted in the fall of the Taliban in 2001, leading to a democracy supported by the West.

In early 2002, the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) activated the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (Jodidio 2017 [18]; AKTC [17]) with the aim of accomplishing the socioeconomic growth that had been pledged in the agreement signed in Bonn in December 2001 (Jodidio 2017 [18]). A cultural heritage conservation mission was launched in May 2005 by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, which lasted until 2011 (Samimi 2019 [21], Jodidio 2017 [18]), which included Herat, Kabul, Balkh and Badakhshan provinces.

In May 2004, the Law on Preservation of the Historical and Cultural Heritage of Afghanistan was approved based on the constitutional law of Afghanistan to protect the country’s heritage assets (Heritage Law 2004 [22]). Another law on the Protection of the Cultural and Tangible Heritage of Herat, signed in 2005, prohibits further construction activities of monuments such as mosques, cisterns, etc. (Rules 2005 [23]). An agreement for the conservation of Tangible Cultural Heritages was drafted in April 2005 in Herat (Samimi et al., 2019 [21]). An expert working group meeting was held at the UNESCO World Heritage Centre in Turin, Italy, in September 2012, and the Afghan government was urged to exert pressure in order to ensure that the historic urban fabric of the cities especially Herat, as well as the monumental ensembles, were effectively protected (UNESCO 2012 [24]).

Guidelines and rules are in place to protect traditional fabric in Afghanistan, particularly the Old City of Herat. These laws and AKTC’s restoration program led to a formal registration, marking, and safeguarding of the traditional mosques and other monuments in the Old City, as well as a proposal to put Herat’s name on the UNESCO heritage site (MCI 2021 [25], Tolo 2021 [26], Kabul 2021 [27]). Additionally, the destruction of buildings is prohibited in the old city; if a building is demolished and requires reconstruction, it ought to require that (1) local materials should be used, (2) the reconstruction should not exceed seven meters in height, and (3) the reconstruction should have a traditional view (Heritage law 2004 [21], Rules 2005 [22]).

After the fall of the Republic of Afghanistan by the Taliban in August 2021, just after the completion of the first phase of this study, UNESCO stated that Afghanistan has a rich cultural heritage that deserves to be preserved, especially the Old City of Herat, a place where UNESCO has been active for several decades. These landmarks ought to be maintained, protected, and preserved for the nation’s future (UNESCO 2021 [28]). As of April 2024, when this article was written, the old city and its traditional fabric are currently unknown since our survey was completed in July 2021.

2.2. Preservational Efforts

In May 1948, Afghanistan joined UNESCO (UNESCO List, 2021 [20]), and UNESCO launched its agency in Kabul as early as the 1950s, helping preserve numerous monuments until 1979. The government or conservation activities have not been fully supported by UNESCO since then (Najimi 2011 [29]). After the Taliban regime was toppled in 2001, the rehabilitation of Afghanistan’s cultural heritage was recognized again as a priority. International and national commitments were formalized by the signing of the Bonn Agreement (UNESCO 2010 [30]). “After the fall of Taliban in 2001, In recent years, the cultural significance of the Old City of Herat has drawn the attention of many national and international organizations (Samimi 2019 [21])”. National and international organizations such as Aga Khan Trust for Culture (hereafter, AKTC)… were involved in restorations of the monuments. “The safeguarding of historic public buildings became a key element in AKTC’s strategy (AKTC newsletter [17]).” In April 2005, UNESCO observed and planned the agreement of conservation of Tangible cultural heritage of Herat, defining conservation zones for the Old City and Herat. In May 2005, AKTC started its conservation program. In 2012, the “Third Expert Working Group Meeting for the Old City” was held at the UNESCO World Heritage Centre in Turin, Italy. Recommendations were given to the Afghanistan government, which made the government put pressure and ensure adequate protection and preservation of monuments and the traditional, historic urban fabric of the Old City (UNESCO 2012 [24]).

“Herat Declaration calls upon all parties to work more effectively in documenting, safeguarding, and enabling an appropriate process of development for the old city of Herat (AKTC 2006 [17])”. In addition, the strategic master plan of Herat has warned that ‘the process of building modernization going on in the Old City is one of the most serious threats to the conservation of its physical integrity (Loda et al., 2013 [19]). Municipal officials seem unable or unwilling to halt demolitions or inappropriate ‘redevelopment’, despite assurances that new development will be rigorously controlled (AKTC [17], Jodidio 2017 [18]). Asim also has shown how urban development and redevelopment are carried out in the old city (Asim, Shimizu 2024 [31]). On 19 August 2021, UNESCO released a statement, after President Ghani fled the country, and the Taliban rose as the new rulers of Afghanistan, which stated, “Afghanistan is home to a wide range of rich and diverse heritage…, that must be safeguarded, … This includes sites such as the Old City of Herat,… where UNESCO has been working for several decades,… It is crucial for the future of Afghanistan to safeguard and preserve these landmarks (UNESCO 2021 [28])”.

2.3. Preservation Efforts by Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC [15])

It was AKTC’s commitment in the 2001 Bon conference to restore the nation’s urban heritage, particularly its cultural heritage, which was of the greatest urgency. The overall mission of AKTC’s activities in Afghanistan is to contribute to the economic and social development of Afghanistan’s metropolitan areas (Jodidio 2017 [18]).

After implementing some projects in Kabul since 2002, the AKTC’s restoration program was extended to Balkh in the north, Kandahar in the south, Badakhshan in the east, and Herat province in the west.

After implementing some projects in Kabul since 2002, the AKTC’s restoration program was extended to the Old City of Herat in 2005. In order to protect rare and delicate architectural treasures, a multi-year plan was implemented, and campaigns were launched to encourage the preservation of these treasures. The AKTC has placed the greatest emphasis on conserving mosques, cisterns, bazaars, and historic houses in the Quzzat and Abdullah Mesri quarters.

AKTC’s largest project in Herat was the conservation of parts of the historic citadel of Qala-e Ekhtyaruddin, which was completed in 2011. The fortress’s boundary walls and public access were strengthened and consolidated, creating an impression of an ancient, intricate settlement. There was an urgent conservation process applied to the ancient shrine complex at Gazergah, located just north of Herat, and the complex’s component parts were restored. Extensive repairs were carried out on the war-damaged domed Chahar-Suq Cistern, and the rest of cisterns as well. After restoration, the Karbasi House and the Yu Aw Synagogue were converted into schools for traditional music and crafts and kindergartens, respectively. Among the thirty other public buildings that have been conserved in the Old City are the historical mosques of Hazrat Ali and Khwaja Rokhband, as well as several shrines, synagogues, houses and hammams (bathhouses).

In order to contribute to the improvement of living conditions, nearly five kilometers of underground and surface drains have been repaired or rebuilt, and more than 6000 square meters of pedestrian alleyways and streets have been paved to facilitate access through the historic fabric.

The AKCT restoration program focused on the overall restoration of the traditional buildings (preservation of everything) in the old city of Herat. The buildings are restored the same as their original shape of plans, material, and façade (Examples are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3).

Since traditional mosques suffer damage in the long term because of decay and natural effects, they must be restored and maintained constantly. As traditional buildings age, they require maintenance and restoration to ensure their continuation. If there is no maintenance, the residents cannot afford reconstruction with traditional materials, so they tend to reconstruct with cheaper modern materials. There would not have been so much transformation today if all the mosques had been restored in the AKTC’s restoration project in 2005–10.

3. Spatial Distributions

3.1. Distribution and Spatial Analysis

In a study written in 1986, which was published as a book in 1988 by Curzon Publications, Najimi plotted 83 mosques on the map of Herat Old City. He marked 24, 20 (19 marked + Grand Mosque with no mark), 20, and 19 mosques in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th quarters. He has explained the functions of the mosques and Eid Gah with their maps and also marked eight primary Madrasa (preliminary mosque education) centers throughout the Old City. The book introduces the architectural features of monuments in Herat, and urban characteristics in general, and does not focus on particular topics.

In another study, published by Rajayee 1984 [32] in Herat Bastan Magazine in 1984, Rajayee located 85 mosques on the map of the Old City and expounded the historical background and characteristics of only 8 traditional mosques. He found 23, 22, 21, and 19 mosques in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th quarters. He used the same symbol for both mosque and Takeya, which is hard to differentiate the two.

Finally, studies conducted by Asim et al., [33,34,35] explained the distribution and typologies of traditional mosques and the periodical analysis of the political system in Afghanistan in recent decades. However, the studies are limited to only one quarter, Quzzat, and only 29 mosques were found. The studies also have not focused on distribution factors throughout the old city, as they vary from quarter to quarter (Asim et al., [33,34,35]). Thus, we decided to conduct the research comprising all the quarters of the old city and find the distribution, distribution factors, and typology of the mosques.

As observed in Figure 4 and Table 1, we could find that there had existed 108 mosques, one mosque was already demolished, and 107 still exist in the Old City. Twenty-nine were in the 1st quarter, 29 in the 2nd quarter, 22 in the 3rd quarter, and 25 in the 4th quarter. At least three fire temples {21}, {S}, and {Z} were reported that changed to mosques after Islam emerged in Herat.

3.2. Distribution Factors

According to this study and as shown in (Figure 2), the following issues have affected the distribution of the mosques in Herat Old City.

• Destruction of Administrative Buildings: As mentioned earlier, the destruction in the Qibchaq quarter and transformation of open spaces to residential houses have resulted in the emergence of modern mosques {19}{28} {36}{51}{72}. The emersion of new mosques in residential areas indicates that recently over urbanized regions with fewer mosques or no mosque required the construction of new mosques. Since these mosques were required, construction was inevitable, and no one could prevent it. However, the method of construction matters and is important because of the traditional landscape of the Old City.

• Destruction of Baa-ra (City wall): As a result of the city wall being demolished, the residents urbanized the city; modern mosques were established starting in the 1950s and continue today. This urbanization occurred in two ways: first, the northern, western, and southern walls were transformed into commercial markets, shops, bazaars. Hence, temporary mosques (a room/hall shared by shopkeepers) appeared. Second, the eastern wall was transformed into residential houses, and six modern mosques {30} {76} {77} {78} {79} {80} appeared in the area.

• Population Growth: It was found that the modern mosques in some regions were due to the dramatic population increase inside the Old City. The residents of many areas could not share one mosque, and they had to build new mosques. Mosques {9} {37} {41} {49} {62} {64} appeared due to the mentioned reason.

• Enlarging the Size of Mosques: According to interviewed residents (original and older than 50 years old, not the immigrants) and historians (local), there existed four smaller temporary mosques around traditional mosques {15} {16}. When the two mosques were transformed into modern mosques, they were enlarged. Now, these mosques are large and further mosque construction in the region has been prevented.

• Existence of traditional Grand Mosques: the Grand Mosque of Herat {S} at nearly the center of the 2nd quarter has prevented the further development of new mosques in the area. In addition, mosques {5} {17} have lost value as the worshipers of these mosques attend the nearby Grand Mosques to pray anytime. The same situation happened in the case of the Grand Mosque of Khirqa {L}, which malfunctioned the mosques {5} {17} in the area. The large mosque {T} in the western part of the 3rd quarter also prevented the further development of new mosques in the area. Except for the cases mentioned, the mosques are densely located in all parts of the Old City.

• The Jewish settlements: Jews had a region containing parts of the 1st and 2nd quarters and lived even in the recent decades. As the situation deteriorated, they immigrated outside Afghanistan. Hence, no mosque was developed in this area due to the existence of Jewish temples called synagogues (S1, S2, S3, and S4). Synagogue (S1) transformed its functionality into a mosque recently.

4. Typological Analyses Based on Material Transformation

4.1. Definitions of the Used Terms

According to this research, plotted on Figure 3, shown in Table 1, mosques are categorized into traditional (historical), and modern (new).

Traditional (historical): defines those mosques, which are originally traditional and whose building materials are traditional. Their origins date back to more than 79 years, pre-World War II. All generations of this kind of mosques were made of fired bricks, sun-dried bricks, and traditional materials. Their first generations are traditional, while their later transformed generations have embraced changes materially and architecturally. Their features include traditional planning, comprising winter, summer mosques, wooden doors, domes, etc., and traditional attachments for Imam students. Traditional mosques are divided into six subcategories.

Type I, A: indicates the mosques that have preserved original fired brick, sun-dried brick condition (constructed, restored, maintained, and still exist in the traditional form). Their characteristics comprise pendentive domical roofs, barrel vault roofs, etc., traditional Herat local planning. The primary material for existing traditional mosques is either sun-dried or fired brick.

Type II, B₁: mosques refer to traditional mosques that have been destroyed, demolished, or changed to modern mosques. Their constructional material included traditional, and their existing material included fired bricks and concrete. The difference between modern to traditional is age/history. Modern mosques do not embrace traditional features; they only own the heredity of traditional origins.

Type II, B₂: these mosques refer to basically traditional mosques but were demolished and transformed into modern structures with a traditional façade.

Type II, C₁: these mosques refer to basically traditional mosques but were demolished and transformed into modern mosques with a traditional façade. According to governmental guidelines since 2005, new constructions ought to be traditional. In this case, the mosque’s structure is modern, while the decorations/views are traditional.

Type II, C₂: these mosques refer to basically traditional mosques that are ruined or destroyed or slightly damaged. Usually, the main mosque or winter mosque is destroyed, and a modern Mosque is attached to the traditional part. The attachments or parts of the traditional mosques still exist, while new attachments are added.

Type III, D₁: these mosques refer to traditional mosques and are damaged. They are not utilized now but are restorable and usable.

Type III, D₂: these mosques are traditional mosques that are demolished. There is no sign of such mosques, only the site was plotted.

Modern (New): this refers to those mosques that are originally new and whose building materials are modern (having concrete), except in one case. Their origins date to post-WWII, particularly the 1950s, early 1990s, and 2000s. The first generation of these mosques were made of cement blocks and supporting terraces that connected columns. The second generation of this type of mosque is made of fired bricks, reinforced concrete, and foundations, concrete columns. They have façades of modern material mirror glasses, finishings of plastic and machine-made tiles as well as modern ornaments, steel and aluminum, cement and plastic plasters, paintings using, acrylics, urethane, inorganic, etc., glass and plastic, ceramic and stone, interior and exterior coatings. Their characteristics comprise flat roofs, modern material mirror-glasses, open windows to alleys and streets, and constructed on empty spaces or lands.

Type IV, E₁: Th ese mosques refer to new mosques constructed after WWII that are not historical but use traditional materials.

Type IV, E₂: These mosques refer to originally new mosques that were constructed after WWII, mostly in the 1990s and 2000s, are not historical, and use concrete material.

4.2. Typology of the Mosques in the Old City Based on Building Material (Construction Material)

According to historical records (Figure 2) and findings of this study (Figure 2 and Figure 3), there were 108 mosques plotted on the map of the Old City, one mosque {25} was demolished, and its site is shown, while the other 107 mosques are still existing. Edifice {K} was originally a synagogue that was transformed into a mosque. The mosques are nearly evenly distributed among the four quarters of the Old City with quarter 3, slightly with the lowest number of mosques. There are 29, 29, 21, and 25 mosques in quarters I, II, III, IV respectively and shown in Figure 5 and their case studies are shown in Figure 6.

Twenty-eight (25.9%) out of 108 mosques are characterized as modern (new) mosques (Type IV, traditional mosques transformed into modern mosques). There are 4, 6, 8, and 10 modern mosques in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th quarters repetitively. Thirteen out of 28 are constructed inside the old boundary wall of the Old City, 9 out of 28 others are constructed between the old boundary and new boundary (Figure 3). The 4th quarter has 11 modern mosques, the most significant number, and the 1st quarter has the least number (4 mosques).

A total of 80 (75.2%) out of 108 mosques are characterized as traditional/historical mosques (A, B₁, B₂, C₁, C₂, D₁, and D₂).

A total of 22 (27.5%) out of 80 are characterized as Type I, A (traditional mosques that are preserved today, a case study is shown in Figure 7). There are ten mosques {A} {B} {C} {D} {E} {F} {G} {H} {J} {L}, plus one exception, {K} (originally a synagogue), in the 1st quarter of the old city. {K} does not have any original architectural features of a mosque such as Mihrab, Qibla direction, etc., but made after transformation into the mosque. There are seven mosques {M} {N} {O} {P} {Q} {R} {S} distributed evenly in all parts of the 2nd quarter in the Old City, two mosques {V}{W} in the third quarter, and two mosques {X} {Y} in the fourth quarter of the Old City.

Five (6.25%) out of 80 are characterized as Type II, B₁ (traditional mosques transformed partially to modern ceilings). These mosques are basically traditional but have been destroyed and are being converted into modern mosques. Three of them are distributed to the northern half of the Old City, two of them are distributed in the southern part of the Old City, an example is shown in Figure 6a.

Three (3.75%) out of 80 are characterized as Type II, B₂ (traditional mosques transformed partially to modern ceiling). Two of them are located in the eastern part of the second quarter, the other one is located in the fourth quarter. Although the 3rd quarter of the Old City has suffered the most significant number of reconstructions/transformations, it does not have any mosques of this type.

Ten (12.5%) out of 80 are characterized as Type II, C₁ (traditional mosques transformed into modern with traditional façade, Figure 6b). One mosque is in the first, six of them are in the second quarter, and three of them are in the fourth quarter (z is a shrine with a space for mosque, not counted).

A total of 38 (47.5%) out of 80 traditional mosques are characterized as Type II, C₂ (traditional mosques transformed into modern, concrete). Twelve out of 38 are in the first quarter, mostly located in the southern region of the quarter, five of them are in the second quarter, mainly in the northern region, ten are located in the third quarter concentrated in the eastern half of the quarter, and eleven are in the northwestern region of the fourth quarter of the Old City.

One (1.25%) out of 80 traditional mosques is characterized as Type III, D1 (traditional ruined/usurped). There is only one mosque of this type {60} just on southern side of Khoosh street in fourth quarter, it is in bad situation and needs urgent restoration. Mosque {12} was also in same situation in 2021, which was recently transformed into concrete, modern. One (1.25%) out of 80 traditional mosques, is characterized as Type III, D2 (traditional demolished). There is only one mosque of this type {25}, which was demolished.

According to Table 2, the most significant number of modern mosques appeared in the 4th quarter, and the least number appeared in the 1st quarter. In the case of the 4th quarter, there were two reasons: the transformation of the city wall to residential houses and the transition of traditional houses to modern ones that resulted in urban population growth. This population growth occurred in the 1990s after the Afghan–Russian war. In the case of the 1st quarter, several buildings are restored, and the landscape is well preserved. Fewer traditional houses were transformed into modern houses, and fewer modern mosques were required. The northern and southern city walls are transformed into bazaars, shops (with temporary mosques), and residential houses. The western city wall is urbanized, and new mosques will appear soon.

According to Table 2, the transformation has taken place (from traditional to modern) in all quarters and is the greatest in the 4th quarter. Thirteen out of 25 (52%) are transformed in the 1st quarter, 16 out of 25 (64%) are changed in the 2nd quarter, 13 out of 17 (76%) are transformed in the 3rd quarter, and 12 out 14 (86%) are transformed in the 4th quarter. The most minor transformation occurred in the 1st quarter, where many restoration activities for preservation purposes have been conducted. The majority of conversions happened in the 3rd quarter, where fewer restorations were conducted than in the 1st and 2nd quarters. Unlike the modern mosques, the most significant number of preserved buildings (12 mosques) are in the 1st quarter. This gradually reduces to the fewest number of preserved buildings (2 mosques) in the 4th quarter. Preservation is carried out mainly in the 1st and 2nd quarters and moderately in the 3rd and 4th quarters.

4.3. Analysis of Modern Constructions, Transformations, Preservations and Process of Changes after WWII

In the field survey, inscriptions for each mosque were checked, local library references were reviewed, and historians and experts (traditional artisans, masons and residents older than 50 years old) were interviewed. The change in the material of the mosques started just after WWII during the Constitutional Monarchy and continued until today, 2021. These changes have occurred during five periods, as is described later. Modern mosque construction started in the Constitutional Monarchy of King Zaher Shah, but preservation and transformation began in the 1970s when UNESCO initiated the restoration program of the Herat Citadel and Grand Mosque.

Construction and restoration of mosques were halted during the Afghan–Soviet war, 1979–1992, and then resumed during the Islamic State of Afghanistan, 1992–2001, and under the Taliban regime controlling Kabul, 1997–2001. Possibly due to political and ideological reasons, Soviet-supported regimes were reluctant to engage in such religious activities, but Islamic governments and groups were eager to do so. Construction and restoration activities heavily increased in the Democratic Period after 2001.

4.3.1. Kingdom of Afghanistan, Constitutional Monarchy, (1933–73)

Mohammad Zahir Shah (19 years old) inherited the government in 1933 after his father, king Nadir Shah, was assassinated, and controlled the country until a bloodless coup overthrew him in 1973, and he went into exile to Italy. The country was relatively calm but with no development until M. Dawud was appointed as prime minister in 1953. According to archival documents, infrastructure projects and constructions backed by foreign aid were conducted after WWII in the 1950s, affecting the mosques.

As observed in Table 3 and Table 4, 9 modern mosques were created during this period, the majority of which were constructed in the 2nd and 4th quarters, where administrative buildings and city walls had been transformed into residential houses. Each of the 1st and 3rd quarters had one new mosque. There were no transformation or preservation activities in this era. The modern mosques of this era were very simple. In the 1950s, the new city was established on the north side of the old city by the government, and the new mosques appeared to the residents.

The walls were made of precast concrete blocks, and ceilings were made of steel and fired bricks. These modern materials are changed to more improved cement concrete with rebars during ISA. The government also did not do anything regarding the preservation of the mosques. Mosque {69} was reconstructed in 1964 and transformed later in the 1970s. Apparently, the first reconstruction was traditional, and the latter was with modern and traditional material.

The political system had no intention of interfering with religious issues so that the people could carry out constructions and conduct their religious affairs so that a peaceful situation existed.

4.3.2. Republic of Afghanistan (First Republic State), 1973–78

As mentioned earlier, Dawud Khan ousted Muhammad Zaher from office. in 1973 and announced himself as the President of the Republic of Afghanistan (the First Republic in the history of Afghanistan). He was supported by the communist party and was finally killed in an upheaval by the same party, which brought a communist government into the country 1978–92. A series of constructions were carried out in Herat, the old City, and UNESCO initiated the Citadel and Grand Mosque restoration.

As observed in Table 3 and Table 4, three modern mosques were created during the period, being the least number of modern mosques among all the periods in the 1st and 3rd quarters of the Old City. According to the government archive documents, the country had numerous construction and infrastructural projects. The economic situation was improved, which affected the conservation and transformation of the public structures inside the town. The transformation of mosques started in this era, and 4 mosques were changed into modern mosques. The modern mosques of this era were more developed. The walls were made of precast concrete blocks, and ceilings included H-steel, fired bricks, or concrete. Concrete columns are observed in a few transformed mosques of this era. Figure 8 summarizes all the constructions, transformations, and preservation activities in the study area during different periods, the data is based on only 105 mosques.

The political situation was similar despite the system change from a kingdom to a republic. Since the state had the same attitude regarding religion, it did not interfere with religious affairs and only residents carried out construction or restoration. It is possible that restorations of Herat’s citadel and minarets by UNESCO during the 1970s influenced residents to conduct extensive restorations on mosques.

4.3.3. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Afghan-Russian War 1978–92

President Mohammad Daud Khan was killed during a deadly upheaval in 1978, and the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (a communist party ruling a puppet regime under the support of the Russian Soviet Union era) seized power. Then, H. Amin, B. Karmal and Najib. Ahmadzai seized power during this era of war. In 1979, the Red Army (Army of the Soviet Union countries) entered Afghanistan, and the Afghan–Russian war started.

In this era, construction/preservation activities were halted due to the ongoing war. It was also the stage when buildings deteriorated due to bullets hitting buildings and damage due to no maintenance.

Mosque construction and development were halted due to a political attitude that opposed religious affairs. As of this point, even mosque restorations had been halted, and the war against the Soviet Union was sweeping across the country.

4.3.4. The Islamic State of Afghanistan (ISA), Internal War, (1992–2001)

The Afghan–Soviet war supported by the West became successful; Russians ousted their troops; and the Mujahidin seized power in 1992. The ISA government, led by B. Rabbani as President, was announced in 1992. In this era, the country embraced internal war, while Herat had a relatively better security condition compared to other provinces and the capital. The Old City resumed the halted activities because of the Herat governor, who fairly ensured security and relative stability in Herat. The transformation was beginning since the residents settled and immigration influx became high in the city after the Afghan-Russian war.

As observed in Table 4, 3 modern mosques were constructed, 4 mosques with traditional characteristics were transformed, and 9 mosques with traditional features were restored (4 of which were transformed into modern mosques in the Period of Democracy). It was mainly an era of maintenance, restoration, and transformation of mosques. More attention was paid to protecting and preserving the heritage sites, monuments, and traditional edifices. The local government carried out the preservations in the Old City in this period. After the Jihad, Herat governor Ismail Khan started a campaign to restore the damaged buildings of Jihad (Holy war) against the Soviet Army. Many public buildings around the province and inside the Old City were restored because of the restoration campaign.

As the state was Islamic and passionate about the religion, mosques were constructed and restored using traditional materials, despite the government’s weaknesses and budget expenditures on internal conflicts. After taking power in 1997 and continuing until 2001, the Taliban followed their successor, the Islamic State of Afghanistan, and constructed mosques.

4.3.5. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (IRA), the Democratic Period, (2001–21)

Following the overthrow of the Taliban administration by American, NATO, and ISA forces in 2001, the President of the ISA government Burhanuddin Rabbani transferred presidential authority peacefully to Hamid Karzai, who became the president of the Interim Government of Afghanistan after the Taliban regime (Taliban: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan) was ousted from Kabul because of the Al-Qaeda attacks on the World Trade Center (New York) on 11 September 2001. Much attention was paid, and billions of dollars were donated to the IRA government to construct Afghanistan. As one of the top corrupt states in the 2010s, the government was unable to even construct a standard hospital. The AKTC started a series of restoration projects around the country to safeguard the monuments. In the case of Herat, the AKTC carried out restoration projects in the Old City, Gazergah, and Bagh-e Dasht. The government did not carry out any reconstruction projects regarding the mosques and was very weak in controlling the illegal construction activities.

As shown in Table 3 and Table 4, six modern mosques are constructed, 38 traditional mosques are transformed, and 18 traditional mosques are restored to their original condition by the AKTC. The residents (originally and older than 50 years old, not the immigrants) claimed that they restored the remaining seven mosques. The residents constructed new mosques, and heavy transformation occurred as economic activities had dramatically increased since 2001. The eagerness to transform was so high that in the case of mosque 9, the mosque leaders destroyed it during holidays when Muslims usually do not work. A total of 38 traditional mosques were transformed, which is the most significant number among the periods; historians and the residents (interviewed residents) reported that they did not expect it to happen. The number of constructed modern mosques is lower than the prior Islamic period and higher than the KA and RA periods. It was a period of mainly transformation, restoration, and limited construction of modern mosques. The government did not carry out the preservations; the AKTC and residents performed rehabilitation of Herat Mosques. The government had just a supervision role at this time.

The modern mosques of this era are the most developed among all ages. There are also fire-brick walls, reinforced concrete columns, and reinforced concrete ceilings. Modern equipment, such as, toilets, electrical supplies, and furniture, are added to the modern mosques of this period. The transformation of this period is an indication of economic activities and the power of the economy. Afghanistan was donated billions of dollars. Although the corrupt government (one of the most corrupt countries; Transparency 2021 [32], Global Citizen 2021 [33], etc.) stole national wealth, the residents still had economic power, and the financial system in this period had a significant impact on the economy of the country. Hence, residents carried out heavy construction until this survey was carried out in April–July 2021.

Despite being democratic and Western-backed, the IRA was mainly constituted by the previous ISA government (formed by Islamist groups) due to the Bonn agreement, which excluded the Taliban from the new transitional government. With the democratic and Islamic nature of the IRA government as well as economic development, the residents had the opportunity to build new mosques, the AKTC conducted restoration, and the government supervised the activities (Figure 8).

5. Conclusions

This study examined the destruction, modernization, transformations, and landscape changes after WWII by focusing on mosques, which are the most important facilities in the urban form of the Old City of Herat, creating and enhancing the traditional landscape of the town. This study found out the distribution of the mosques, expounded typology, explored the transformation and preservation, and evaluated the preservation considerations for modern and transformed mosques.

Traditional mosques are those mosques that are built with bricks (fired or sun-dried) while modern mosques are made of concrete. A preserved mosque is one that has maintained sun-dried or fired bricks and has been preserved until today. A transformed mosque was originally built with bricks and was later transformed into concrete (and sometimes reinforcements).

There existed 108 mosques inside the Old City, one of which was demolished, and 107 exist today (as of surveys conducted during April–July 2021, and also October-November 2023). Twenty-eight were modern mosques, and 80 were traditional. Modern mosques affirm traces of the newest developments, which are mainly located in the southern quarters (3rd and 4th quarters) of the Old City. The traditional mosques are evenly in all parts of the Old City. A total of 22 out of 80 traditional mosques are preserved, 56 out of 80 are transformed, and 2 out of 80 are either damaged or demolished. The study focused on the changes that occurred after WWII: (a) modern constructions, 28 modern mosques appeared in place of the transformed administrative buildings, which were changed to houses, change of city wall, and population growth; (b) transformations, 56 traditional transformed mosques, which require preservation considerations for restoring the traditional landscape; and (c) preservations, 22 out of 80 traditional mosques are preserved even today.

Modern constructions started in the 1950s and continue until today, but transformation and preservation began in the 1970s, increased in the 2000s, and continue until today, 2021. The Afghan governments were weak in controlling construction activities, and protecting the landscape and the monuments, but they issued announcements and guidelines. However, the AKTC had significant roles in the preservation of the landscape practically, particularly the mosques, and UNESCO impacted intellectually. The perspective of conservation was also found in this study, which will help future preservation studies and activities.

The preservation of these types of mosques should be a focus of future studies, since the situation of the mosques in 2023 when this study was conducted is vastly different from the situation of the mosques in 2005 when AKTC conducted its restoration program.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.H., T.A., F.A. and H.W.; Methodology, G.M.A.; Software, A.S.H., A.H., T.A., F.A., F.S. and M.S.; Validation, A.S.H., A.H., F.A., H.W., F.S. and M.S.; Formal analysis, G.M.A. and F.A.; Investigation, A.S.H., A.H., T.A., F.A., H.W., F.S. and M.S.; Resources, A.S.H., A.H., T.A., F.A., H.W., F.S. and M.S.; Data curation, A.S.H., A.H., T.A., F.A., H.W., F.S. and M.S.; Writing—original draft, G.M.A. and F.A.; Writing—review & editing, G.M.A. and T.A.; Visualization, A.S.H., A.H., T.A., F.A., H.W., F.S. and M.S.; Supervision, T.A. and G.M.A.; Project administration, G.M.A.; Funding acquisition, G.M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our gratitude to the Japanese government, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), QUEST, University of the Ryukyus, University of Central Asia, and Government of Canada.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Abbreviations

UNESCO	United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
AKTC	Aga Khan Trust for Culture.
GIS	Geographical Information System
GPS	Global Positioning System.
NGOs	Non-Governmental Organizations
KA	Kingdom of Afghanistan 1933–73
RA	the Republic of Afghanistan, 1973–78
DRA	Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Afghan-Soviet war1978–92
ISA	Islamic State of Afghanistan 1992–2001
IRA	Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Democratic Period), 2001–21

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures and Tables

Figure 2. Examples of restoration of AKTC for preservation of façade, townscape, etc. (a) an alley restored to preserve traditional landscape; (b) a synagogue restored to preserve historical building.

Figure 3. Full restoration of Hafizji mosque; rooms, courtyard, equipment, gates, façade, etc. based on preservation of its shapes, and material, considering identity and historical value. (a) Restoration of the façade of the mosque; (b) Restoration of interior of the mosque.

Figure 4. Distribution of Mosques, Najimi 1988 [8], and Rajayee 1984 [32], reproduced by authors (2023).

Figure 5. Typology of mosques based on construction material, (2023).

Figure 6. Samples of types of transformation. Note: E2 and C2 have same material constructed with concrete and reinforcement; C2 is historical or originally traditional, and E2 is new or concrete.

Figure 7. The case of Type I, A. A case of preserved mosque. By Asim, 2021.

Figure 8. Type of changes based on periodical analysis based on 105 mosques, by authors, 2023.

Table 1

Construction materials, and types of mosques (observation), Historical background (inscriptions and references). 2023.

ID	Name (Inscription/by Residents)	Construction Date	Restoration	Material		Type
				O	E
{A}	Ma-Aaz, Arg, Kh. Naqshbandi	-	1942, 1982 2006	t	t	I, A
{B}	Nawab, Malik	BI	1491 2005–8	t	t	I, A
{C}	Allama Faizani	-	1970s, 2022–23	t	t	I, A
{D}	Sharif	-	1993, 2005–10	t	t	I, A
{E}	Mufti Rasool	-	2005–10	t	t	I, A
{F}	Maulana Haqdad	-	2005–10	t	t	I, A
{G}	Ali	-	1994 2005–10	t	t	I, A
{H}	Sarwar	-	2005–10	t	t	I, A
{I}	Rokhband	EI	2005–10, 2022–23	t	t	II, C2
{J}	Mohammad Azi, SSS	-	2003, 2005–10	t	t	I, A
{K}	Bilal (Yu-Aw Syng.)	S	1970s, 2005–10	t	t	I, A
{L}	Khirqa Sharif	T/S/D	1920s, 1970s, 2018–19	t	t	I, A
{m}	Imamzada Mozaffar		2022–23	t		II, B2
{M}	Haji Mosa	1028	1857 2008	t	t	I, A
{N}	S. S. Ahmad Kabir.	Samanids		t	t	I, A
{O}	S.A. Shah, A. Ibn Omar	EI	1910 1998 2009–10	t	t	I, A
{P}	Abaazar Ghaffari	-	-	t	t	I, A
{Q}	Haji Amir	K	2010s	t	t	I, A
{R}	Sayed Shohada Hamza, Khaja Noor	BI	-	t	t	I, A
{S}	Grand Mosque of Herat	BI	G, K, T, S, D, 2017, 2022	t	t	I, A
{T}	Hamza, Chaharyar	-	-	t	t	II, C2
{t1}	Habibi Takiya and mosque		2021			IV, E2
{U}	Sayed Makhdoom	EI, Sel		t	t	B1/B2
{V}	Naqqashi	T		t	t	I, A
{W}	G Nabi	-	1870s, 2009	t	t	I, A
{X}	Panjtan	-		t	t	I, A
{Y}	Hafizji Habibullah	-	1923, 2007	t	t	I, A
{1}	Gulab Khan	2000s	2023–24	m	m	IV, E2
{2}	Khaja Kalla			t	m	II, C2
{3}	Sayed-e na Hazrat-e Ali		1990s, 2005–10, 2010s	t	m	II, C2
{4}	Shomal-e Arg, Owais Qarani		2023–24	m	m	IV, E2
{5}	Sultan Ali baba		2000s	t	m	II, C2
{6}	Peer Parenda		2010s	t	t	IV, E1
{7}	Gh. Farooq. Moulna. M.S.M. Cheshti	-	1980s, 90s, 2018	t	m	II, C2
{8}	S. H. Omar farooq	-	2010s	t	m	II, C2
{9}	Khajaha, Osman Ghani			m	m	IV, E2
{10}	Saad I.A.W, Kasa L.		2010s	t	m	II, C2
{11}	Shah Husain, H Ali		2021–22	t	m	II, C2
{12}	Charkhbafa, Wais Qarani		2022–23	t	t	II, C2
{13}	H. Omar Farooq			t	m	II, C2
{14}	Razawi A Raz		2000s	t	m	II, C2
{15}	Nabi Akram (PBUH)		2010s	t	m	II, C2
{16}	Ghudal, Saadia, Taftazani		2005–10, 2021–22	t	m	II, C1
{17}	Tir Andazan			t	m	II, B1
{18}	Owais Qarani, Sharif			t	m	II, C2
{19}	Ishaq		2023	m	m	II, E2
{20}	Salam			t	m	I, C2
{21}	Qutb Baba, Gunbad-e Noor	BI		t	M	I, B1
{22}	Pahihasar			t	m	II, C1
{23}	Rasool Akram BPUH, Haji Raes		t	M	I, B1	II, B1
{24}	H. Salman Farsi	S	2010s	t	M	IV, E2
{25}	Imam Abu Yusuf		2022			III, D2
{26}	Bayezid Bustami	K		t	M	II, B2
{27}	Mohammad Rasulullah, M.M.S		2010s	t	m	II, C2
{28}	Kholfa Rashidin		2010s	m	m	IV, E2
{29}	Sahibzadaha	1928	2001	t	M	II, B2
{30}	Abd. Rahman Ibn Owf, Quli Khan		2010s	m	m	IV, E2
{31}	Khaja Mohammad Orooj			t	m	II, C1
{32}	Sadiqia			t	m	II, C1
{33}	I. Jafar Sadiq		2010s	t	m	II, C1
{34}	S. F. Azam			t	m	II, C2
{35}	Motawaliha			t	m	II, C1
{36}	Fazili			m	m	IV, E2
{37}	Dawlatshahi					IV, E2
{38}	S. H. Ali		2010s	t	m	II, C2
{39}	Ashab Badr		2010s	t	m	II, C1
{40}	Aabjosh, Omar			t	m	IV, E2
{41}	Sabiri			t	m	IV, E2
{42}	Padah, H. Yasir			t	m	II, C2
{43}	Zinadar			m	m	IV, E2
{44}	Wali Asr			t	m	II, C2
{45}	Razawi			t	m	II, C2
{46}	S. A. Seddiq			t	m	II, C2
{47}	Wazir, M. Tammar			t	m	II, C2
{48}	Baboo, Omar		2021	t	m	II, C2
{49}	Naajo mosque, Khalid					IV, E2
{50}	Abu Hurairah			t	m	II, C2
{51}	Mosab Omair			m	m	IV, E2
{52}	Khalid			m	m	IV, E2
{53}	Kashmiriha			t	M	II, B1
{54}	Ab. A. Ansar			t	m	II, C2
{55}	Masjid Al Nabi		2021			II, C2
{56}	Kharraqani			t	m	IV, E2
{57}	Hamza, Taqwa			t	m	II, C2
{58}	Hazrat Mohammad Rasolullah					IV, E2
{59}	Mohammad Rasolollah	2010s	2010s	m	m	II, C2
{60}	Shahzada Yaqoob	1900		t	t	III, D1
{61}	Sayed Husain, Zal Khan		2021–23	t	m	II, C2
{62}	Mirza Khan Takeya, Abdullah misri		2021–22	m	m	IV, E2
{63}	Aaqa Shariat			t	m	II, C2
{64}	Salman Farsi		2021–22	m	m	IV, E2
{65}	Obaidullah Ahrar		2023	t	M	II, C2
{66}	Ittifaq			t	m	II, C2
{67}	Salman Farsi		2023	t	m	II, C2
{68}	H. A. Sediq			t	m	II, C2
{69}	Imam Hasan Mojtaba		2010s	t	M	I, C1
{70}	Miraqa, jowza			t	m	II, C1
{71}	Tishriziha. Moawiya			t	m	II, C2
{72}	Mohammad Rasolollah		2010s	m	m	IV, E2
{73}	Moulana Nazamuddin			m	m	IV, E2
{74}	Khaja Ab. Misri			t	m	II, C1
{75}	Hazrat Omar, Market					II, E2
{76}	Imam Abu Hanifa, Spin Adah			m	m	IV, E2
{77}	Ansarian, Khoosh		2010s	m	m	IV, E2
{78}	Abu Hanifa		2010s	m	m	IV, E2
{79}	Haji, Ittifaq		2022–23	m	m	IV, E2
{80}	Bahauddin waiz			m	m	II, C2
{81}	Imam Javad, Shahzadaha		2010s	t	m	II, C2
z	Bibi Zainab			t		II, C1

Note 1: z is a shrine but has a space/room as a mosque. Note 2. t: traditional, m: modern, M: having traditional building at one side + modern building at another side or corner, Selj: Seljuks, Construction Date is based on inscriptions, local verbal stories and references, O: Original, E: Existing, BI: Before Islam, EI: Early Islam, T: Timurids, K: Kurts, S: Safavids.

Table 2

Typology and existing vernacular and modern mosques in each quarter.

Origin of Mosque	Typology		Existing Condition/Transformation	Quarters of the Old City				Total
	Main type	Sub-Type		I	II	III	IV	No	%
modern	IV	E1	No change	1				1	0.9
		E2		3	6	7	11	27	25
traditional/historical	I	A	Preserved	11	7	2	2	22	20.4
	II	B1	To modern	1	2	1	1	5	4.6
		B2	To modern with traditional façade	-	2	-	1	3	2.7
		C1	To modern Ceiling, partially	1	3	-	6	10	9.2
		C2	To modern Room/plan, partially	11	5	10	12	38	35.2
	III	D1	Damaged	-	-	-	1	1	0.9
		D2	Demolished	-	1	-	-	1	0.9
Total				28	26	20	34	108	100

Table 3

Process of Changes and Transformations.

Quarter IDs, and Names, on Figure 4 and Figure 5	Period of Construction or Transformation	Modern Construction	Transformation: B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, and D2	Restoration for Preservation: A	Total
		Type I	Type II
I: Bardurani	KA	-	-	-	-
	RA	2	-	1	3
	DRA	-	-	-	-
	ISA	1	3	3	7
	IRA	1	10	8	19
Total		4	13	12	29
II: Qebchaq	KA	4	-	-	4
	RA	-	2	1	3
	DRA	-	-	-	-
	ISA	1	3	2	6
	IRA	1	11	4	16
Total		6	16	7	29
III: Momandha	KA	1	-	-	1
	RA	1	1	-	2
	DRA	-	-	-	-
	ISA	3	4	-	7
	IRA	0	8	4	12
Total		5	13	4	22
IV: Abd. Mesri	KA	4	-	-	4
	RA	-	1	-	1
	DRA	-	-	-	-
	ISA	3	2	-	5
	IRA	4	9	2	15
Total		11	12	2	25
Total of all Periods		28	58	22 *	108

Notes of Table 3: KA: Kingdom of Afghanistan 1933–1973, RA: the Republic of Afghanistan, 1973–1978, DRA: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Afghan-Soviet war 1978–1992, ISA: Islamic State of Afghanistan 1992–2001, IRA: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Democratic Period), 2001–2021, *: AKTC restored, residents participated, UNESCO supported intellectually.

Table 4

Summary of each Period.

Periods	Modern	Transformed	Preserved	Total
KA	9	-	-	9
RA	3	4	11 − 9 = 2 *	9
DRA	-	-	-	-
ISA	8	12	9 − 4 = 5 **	25
IRA	6	38	18	62
Total	28	58	22	108

*: Eleven mosques were restored, nine were later transformed, remaining are 2. **: Nine mosques were restored, four were later transformed, remaining are 5. KA: Kingdom of Afghanistan 1933–1973, RA: the Republic of Afghanistan, 1973–1978, DRA: Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Afghan-Soviet war 1978–1992, ISA: Islamic State of Afghanistan 1992–2001, IRA: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Democratic Period), 2001–2021.

References

1. AbulQaraya, B. The Civic and Cultural Role of the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque. Procedia—Soc. Behav. Sci.; 2015; 211, pp. 488-497. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.065]

2. Hillenbrand, R. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque: A Landmark of Modern Islamic; Heba-Naser, Dhabi, A., Translators SHAWATEA: Qatar, 2012.

3. Hadith: Al-Muwatta Imam Malik, volume 1, page 129. Tehran. Iran. Available online: https://noorlib.ir/en/book/info/57378/ (accessed on 17 June 2024).

4. Al-Bukhari, M. Sahih al Bukhari; 2nd ed. Egyptian Ministry of Awqaf, Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs Printing House: Cairo, Egypt, 1990.

5. Muslim, I.A.H. Sahih Al Muslim; Abd al-Baqis, M.F. Cairo Al Aamirah Publications: Cairo, Egypt, 1955.

6. UNESCO 2004. City of Herat, Ministry of Information and Culture of Afghanistan. Available online: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1927/ (accessed on 29 August 2021).

7. Habibi, A. The Efflorescence of Herat during Timurids; Jihadi, T. Cultural Council of Afghanistan Organization, Sayed Sons Printers: Lahore, Pakistan, 1985; (In Perian)

8. Najimi, A.W. Herat: The Islamic City; A Study in Urban Conservation Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, Curzon Press: London, UK, 1988.

9. Reindeke, G. Forum and Funktion Afghanischer Stadte, Dargestaelltam Belspiel von Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif und Jalalalabad; Berlin Printing: Berlin, Germany, 1976.

10. Seljuki, F. Book of Herat Shrines; Jovaini, M. Tauwheed Press: Herat, Afghanistan, 1989.

11. Asfazari, M. Rouzatul Jannat Fi Ausaf-e Madinat-e Herat; book 1 Imam, S.M.K. Tehran University: Tehran, Iran, 1960.

12. Asim, G.M.; Ando, T. A Study on Cisterns in the Herat Old City, Afghanistan. J. Archit. Plan.; 2020; 85, pp. 781-789. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.85.781]

13. Heravi, M.S. Book of Cisterns; Sunbulah Publications: Mashhad, Iran, 2005; (In Persian)

14. Najimi, A.W. Ghaznavidarnes Architectura I Afghanistan; Curzon Press: London, UK, 1980.

15. Al-Heravi, S.I.M.I.Y. The History Book of Herat in Persian; Majd, G.R.T. National Iranian Library: Tehran, Iran, 2004.

16. Niedermeyer, O.V. Afghanistan; Niedermeyer: Leipzig, Germany, 1924.

17. AKTC 2006. Newsletter # 15.: AKTC Newsletter Sept Oct 2008 JL. Available online: https://next.archnet.org/sites/6409 (accessed on 29 August 2021).

18. Jodidio, P. (Ed.) Afghanistan; Preserving Historical Heritage. Munich: Prestel. 2017; Available online: https://www.alibris.com/Afghanistan-Preserving-Historic-Heritage-Philip-Jodidio/book/44676252 (accessed on 29 August 2021).

19. Loda, M.; Benedetto, G.D.; Hinz, M.; Preite, M.; Tartaglia, M.; Maciocco, G.; Valen tini, A. Herat Strategic Master Plan: A Vision for the Future; Herat University and Herat Municipality: Firenze, Italy, 2013.

20. UNESCO 2011. List of the 193 Member States. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/countries (accessed on 29 August 2021).

21. Samimi, S.A.B.; Ando, T.; Kawish, K. Analysis of the Transformation of Herat Old City, Afghanistan. Conserv. Manag. Archaeol. Sites; 2019; 3, pp. 143-159. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13505033.2019.1664626]

22. MCI. Heritage Law; Ministry of Culture, Information of Afghanistan: Kabul, Afghanistan, 2004.

23. MCI. Rules; Ministry of Culture, Information of Afghanistan: Kabul, Afghanistan, 2005.

24. UNESCO 2012. 3rd Expert Working Group Meeting for the Old City of Herat and the Archaeological Remains of Jam World Heritage Property. Available online: https://whc.unesco.org/document/118550 (accessed on 29 June 2021).

25. MCI. A Copy of Herat Projects; Ministry of Culture, Information Archival Directorate: Kabul, Afghanistan, 2021.

26. Tolo 2021. Available online: https://tolonews.com/arts-culture-173228 (accessed on 29 June 2021).

27. Kabul 2021. Available online: https://thekabultimes.com/herat-city-to-be-listed-as-unesco-world-heritage-site/ (accessed on 29 June 2021).

28. UNESCO 2021. UNESCO Calls for the Protection of Cultural Heritage. 2021; Available online: https://en.unesco.org/news/afghanistan-unesco-calls-protection-cultural-heritage-its-diversity (accessed on 26 August 2021).

29. Najimi, A.W. Built Heritage in Afghanistan: Threats, Challenges, Conservation; Taylor and Francis: Abingdon, UK, 2011.

30. UNESCO 2010. UNESCO Country Programming Document (UCPD): Afghanistan 2010–2011. Available online: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001875/187584e.pdf (accessed on 29 June 2021).

31. Asim, G.M.; Shimizu, H. Physical features and social analysis of Gozar: The caseof Quzzat quarter of Herat Old City, Afghanistan. Jpn Archit. Rev.; 2024; 7, e12438. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2475-8876.12438]

32. Rajayee,. Herat Covered Cisterns. Herat-e Bastan Magazine; 1984.

33. Asim, G.M.; Shimizu, H. Physical features and analysis of traditional mosques: The case of Quzzat quarter of Herat Old City, Afghanistan. Built Herit.; 2023; 7, 13. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s43238-023-00092-2]

34. Asim, G.M.; Shimizu, H. Analyses and architectural typology of preserved traditional mosques in the old city of Herat in Afghanistan: The case of Quzzat Quarter. Built Herit.; 2022; 6, 27. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s43238-022-00070-0]

35. Asim, G.M.; Shimizu, H. Transformation Analysis of Traditional Mosques: The Case of Quzzat Quarter of Herat Old City, Afghanistan. Heritage; 2022; 5, pp. 1819-1835. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030094]