Introduction
Agricultural systems continuously facing problems of stagnated crop production, nutrient deficiencies, declining water productivity per unit area and nutrient use efficiency, soil organic carbon, climate change, insect pest attack etc., due to excessive application of fertilizers, pesticides, for enhancing crop productivity. To address these challenges, adoption of practices and policies that promote long-term resilience, productivity and resource efficiency is necessary in sustainable manner. So, there is a need to develop emerging technology in this changing climate era such as nanotechnology which plays a significant role in the transformation of agriculture and food production and has the potential to modify the procedures that are used in conventional agriculture [1]. According to Buentello et al. [2], nanotechnology can be harnessed to address some of the world’s most critical development problems. However, to our knowledge, there has been no systematic prioritization of applications of nanotechnology targeted toward these challenges faced by the 5 billion people living in the developing world. Nanotechnology, the manipulation of materials at the nanometer scale (one billionth of a meter), involves creating and utilizing structures, devices, and systems with unique properties and functions due to their small size. Powers et al. [3] opined that nanoparticles (NPs) are materials that have at least one dimension and a size that is no greater than 100 nm. This technology has revolutionized various fields, including medicine, electronics, and materials science. In recent years, its application in agriculture has shown promising potential to address critical challenges related to food production, sustainability, and environmental conservation. The concept of nanotechnology was first articulated by physicist Richard Feynman in his 1959 lecture, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” where he envisioned the possibility of manipulating individual atoms and molecules. However, the term “nanotechnology” was popularized in the 1980s by engineer K. Eric Drexler, who advocated for the potential of nanoscale engineering. The subsequent decades shows significant advances in nanomaterials and nanodevices, leading to their exploration in various sectors, including agriculture. The application of nanotechnology in agriculture can be traced back to the early 2000s when researchers began investigating its potential to improve crop yields, pest control, and soil health. The development of nano-fertilizers and nano-pesticides marked one of the first major breakthroughs. Nanotechnology in agriculture have significant potential, but scalability, affordability, and compatibility with present farming procedures remain. Keeping this in view, this review is prepared with the objective that how nanotechnology works in smart agricultural systems, nano formulation-based fertilizers or pesticides in agriculture and their impact on plant growth and pathogen control, use of nanotechnology in water management, nano-delivery systems for genetic material, food and packaging in agriculture and what be the fate of nano-materials, biotic and abiotic remediation techniques through nano-particles. This systematic review is significant as it provides a comprehensive overview of the potential benefits and challenges of integrating nanotechnology into agricultural production systems, promoting sustainable and efficient farming practices, and guiding future research and development in this promising field.
Methodology
Review principles
This review paper aims to explore recent studies on the application of nanotechnology techniques in agriculture, addressing specific questions through a two-fold approach. Firstly, it provides a comprehensive overview of key nanotechnology concepts in agriculture and discusses the specific roles and innovations of nanotechnology in agricultural production system. Second, it carries out desk research to provide a comprehensive literature analysis, focusing on the use of nanotechnology in agriculture and its benefits. The review utilizes secondary documents to analyze the limitations and potential nanotechnology of for achieving sustainability in the context of agricultural management practices. The issue overview, literature sourcing, synthesis and discussion of the findings, and technique used in previous research are the three iterative phases of the desk study.
Literature search strategy
We used reliable online resources like PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct to do a thorough internet search in order to conduct the literature survey. The search employed specific key terms, including “nanotechnology”, “concept of nanotechnology”, “nanofertilizers in agriculture”, “nanopesticide”, nanotechnology in seed science", nanotechnology in crop production”, “challenges of nanotechnology “ and “ future prospects”. The articles included in this review were mainly selected based on the significance of their titles and abstracts of the research topic.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The inclusion criteria for this study were research that particularly studied advances in the use of nanotechnology to improve resource use efficiency through real-time insights into fertilizer, water, pesticide, seed technology in food preservation. Articles that did not include nanotechnology applications in agriculture in their abstract, introduction, or conclusion were rejected at the eligibility stage. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria included articles that were written in any other language, contained incomplete or irrelevant data, irrelevant and duplicate articles or for which full-text access was unavailable.
Strengths and limitations
We conducted a comprehensive literature search to identify studies that elucidate the potential and limitation of nanotechnology to increase agricultural production by optimizing agricultural management practices and minimizing resource wastage through various aspects of nanotechnology. This review included 85 relevant papers from the 157 articles that were initially collected. To address the existing knowledge gap in this subject, we collected studies ranging from 1999 to 2024, including both recent and historical data.
Nano-technology in smart agricultural systems
Nanotechnology offers a range of applications in agricultural systems, aiming to address various challenges and improve productivity, sustainability, and resilience through smart farming (Fig. 1). Chen and Yada [4] in their study revealed that the application of nanomaterials to the coating of chemicals like fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, fungicide and seeds is one of the most significant applications of nanotechnology in agricultural systems. Nanotechnology may increase agricultural potential to harvest higher yields in an eco-friendly way even in the challenging environments [5]. A notable example of nano-fertilizers' success can be seen in India. Researchers at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) developed a zinc nano-fertilizer that has shown to increase yields by 20% compared to conventional zinc fertilizers. This innovative solution addresses zinc deficiency in soils, a common issue in many parts of India, thus improving crop productivity and nutritional quality [1]. In Brazil, scientists have developed silica nanoparticles loaded with neem oil, a natural pesticide exhibited prolonged pest control effects and reduces toxicity to non-target organisms, promoting a safer and more sustainable approach to pest management [6]. In arid regions, such as parts of Africa, the application of hydrogel nanoparticles has shown promise in enhancing soil moisture retention, thereby improving crop yields and resilience to drought conditions [7]. For instance, researchers in the Netherlands have developed nanosensors that monitor plant health by detecting specific stress-related biomarkers, allowing for timely interventions and optimizing resource use [8].
Fig. 1 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Nanotechnology in smart agricultural systems
In agriculture, nanotech herbicides and fertilizers improve plant development, and molecular farming with nano vectors aims to replace viral vectors [9]. Various metal, metal oxide, polymer-based nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, engineered nanomaterials, and nano formulations with active ingredient based nano fertilizers and nano pesticides showed their potential in sustainable agriculture production [10]. Further, Green synthesis of nanomaterials increased the potential of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials in agriculture by reducing toxicity and increasing stability. In contrast, negative impacts of nanotechnology in agriculture have also been reported for toxicity to plants and ecosystems [11]. And the use of polymer-based nanoparticles and green synthesis of nanomaterials extend the scope of nanotechnology in agriculture.
Nano-fertilizers
Nano-fertilizers essentially fertilizers where the active ingredients, such as nutrients or growth-promoting substances, are broken down into nanoparticles and can be tailored to deliver specific nutrients to plants at specific growth stages, allowing for more precise nutrient management and optimized crop production. Different nanomaterials encapsulate nutrients such carbon (C), nitrogen (N), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), and magnesium (Mg) which is mainly required for the crop that leads to promote the crop fertilizer absorption and reduce the outflow [12]. Nano-encapsulated slow-release fertilizers can provide a more sustained supply of nutrients to plants, reducing the need for frequent reapplication of fertilizers by releasing nutrients gradually over time, this not only saves on fertilizer costs for farmers but also minimizes the risk of nutrient leaching into the environment and limits the interaction of nutrients with microorganisms, water, and soil, which might result in the immobilization of nutrients [13]. Recent studies show that loading N, P, and K into chitosan NPs improves nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium acquisition in cultured coffee plants by 17.0, 16.3 and 67.5%, respectively [14]. MgO nano-particles boosted seed cotton yield by 42.2% compared to the untreated control [15]. In order to ensure that the nutrients are solely taken up by the plant and not lost to unintended targets such as soil, water, or microorganisms, NPs can be employed as fertilizers. This allows for the release of the nutrients to be managed in a manner that allows for efficient utilization. NP fertilizer composites release more efficiently due to their large specific surface area, stability, and biocompatibility [16]. For instance, urea-hydroxyapatite (HA) NPs can extend nitrogen release and reduce N-fertilizer use. Nanohybrids of urea and HA boost agronomic nitrogen use efficiency by 30% compared to pure urea [12]. Significant increase in yields have been observed due to foliar application of nano particles as fertilizer [5]. It was shown that 640 mg ha−1 foliar application (40 ppm concentration) of nano phosphorus gave 80 kg ha−1 P equivalent yield of cluster bean and pearl millet under arid environment. Currently, research is underway to develop nano-composites to supply all the required essential nutrients in suitable proportion through smart delivery system. Preliminary results suggest that balanced fertilization may be achieved through nanotechnology [17]. Traditional fertilizers can leach into water bodies or volatilize into the atmosphere, contributing to water and air pollution. Several nanofertilizers significantly enhance the photosynthesis process by affecting chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and carotenoid content, thereby altering the rate of photosynthesis and the production of plant metabolites through the Calvin cycle. Carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs) also stimulate water channel proteins, which regulate root water absorption and improve nutrient uptake for photosynthetic synthesis. This leads to increased chlorophyll content and photosynthetic activity in plants, along with a significant boost in antioxidant enzyme activity. Consequently, these effects enhance plant stress resistance and adaptability [18]. Nano-encapsulated fertilizers help to minimize these environmental impacts by reducing nutrient runoff and emissions, thus protecting water quality and air quality. Environment, plant species, age, and nanoparticle stability, functionalization, and delivery mechanisms affect nano fertilizer uptake, translocation, and accumulation [19]. The plants receive nutrients slowly through dissolution and ionic exchange on demand. Adsorption of nutrients pulls them away as needed. Because it may interchange nutrients, nano-zeolite releases K slowly and gradually, according to Zhou and Huang [20]. It provides plant roots with nutritional cations and anions, making it an excellent growth medium. Nano porous Zeolite slows fertilizer delivery, allowing the plant to absorb all the nutrients. Nano fertilizers’ enormous surface area allows plants to absorb more nutrients [5, 21]. It may contain nitrogen, potassium, integrated phosphorus, slow-dissolving calcium, and several trace nutrients [9]. Complexing with cell membrane transporters or root exudates lets nanoparticles enter plants [22]. Stomata and trichrome base can transport nanoparticles in leaves [23]. Nano fertilizer may promote productivity while ensuring environmental safety [13]. Nanoparticles migrate apoplastically and symplastically and penetrate plant cells through sieve-like cell wall structures if their particle size is less than cell wall pores (5 to 20). Zinc [24], Silicon [25] and iron oxide nano-particles have attracted a lot of attention due to the numerous applications in agriculture. Also, can be incorporated into fertilizers or soil amendments to enhance the availability and uptake of zinc by plants. ZnO NPs possess UV-blocking properties and can be used in agricultural films, coatings, or sprays to protect plants from harmful UV radiation. This helps prevent sunburn, photoinhibition, and other UV-induced damage to crops, especially in open-field cultivation or greenhouse environments. Metal based nanoparticles also expressed positive results in seed germination, plant growth and pest control under limited concentration range [26]. For instance, Iron oxide nano-particles have been extensively studied for their ability to adsorb, degrade, or immobilize contaminants in soil and water. Iron oxide nanoparticles can serve as carriers for fertilizers or nutrient supplements, enabling controlled-release and targeted delivery of nutrients to plant roots. By encapsulating nutrients within iron oxide nanoparticles, their uptake efficiency by plants can be enhanced, leading to improved nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity. They can be applied as foliar sprays, soil amendments, or seed coatings to promote root development, flowering, and fruiting in crops, especially under adverse environmental conditions [18]. Iron oxide nanoparticles can be functionalized with biological receptors or probes to create biosensors for detecting pesticides, heavy metals, pathogens, or other contaminants in agricultural samples. It offers a promising solution for sustainable agriculture, providing farmers with an effective tool to optimize nutrient management, reduce environmental pollution, and enhance crop production (Fig. 2). Continued research and development in this area will further refine the technology and its application in agricultural practices.
Fig. 2 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Benefits and drawbacks of nano-fertilizers
Nano-pesticides
According to Trivedi et al. [27] insects harm at least 7–50% of crops, accounting for one-third of the global food supply and resulting in a staggering $100 billion economic loss. Pesticides minimize production loss by enhancing food safety, but also pollute the ecosystem. Nano-pesticides are a significant improvement in agricultural production systems, providing more effective and environment friendly pest management options. Furthermore, nano-pesticides can overcome insect resistance by delivering active ingredients more effectively and precisely, allowing for lower doses and reducing the likelihood of resistance development. Their unique properties enable targeted action and sustained release, enhancing the efficacy of pest control. Smaller particle sizes enable for greater penetration of insect cuticles or cell membranes, enhancing pesticide bioavailability and effectiveness. Nano-formulations of pesticides (nano herbicides, nanofungicides, and nanoinsecticides) improve pest control performance by improving active ingredient delivery, lowering off-target effects, and limiting pesticide resistance. ZnO nanoparticles can be used as nano-pesticides in agriculture. They have insecticidal, larvicidal, and repellant activities against a variety of agricultural pests, providing a safer and more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical pesticides. Likewise, Silver nanoparticles had high antibacterial action against a variety of bacteria, fungi, and viruses [28]. In agriculture, NPs can be employed as antimicrobial agents to combat plant infections and crop illnesses, minimizing the need for chemical pesticides. By delivering pesticides more efficiently, it requires lower application rates, reducing chemical usage and minimizing pesticide residues in the environment. It also enabled targeted delivery of active ingredients to pests while minimizing exposure to non-target organisms. Researchers tested nano silver against phytopathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [29]. Besides being antibacterial, some nanoparticles (Fe, Cu, Si, Al, Zn, Al2O3, ZnO, CeO2, TiO2 and carbon nanotubes) negatively affect plant growth [30]. Numerous nanoparticle-based system studies may minimize agricultural pesticide use [31]. Nanoparticle-based pesticides can benefit from antifungal properties [29]. Nickel nanoparticles fungicidal effect may inhibit spore germination. According to Pulit et al. [32], silver and zinc nanoparticles have similar antifungal activities against copper nanoparticles. Silver is a popular inorganic nanoparticle-based antibacterial agent because it offers advantages over copper, zinc, gold, ZnO, Al2O3, and TiO2. Plant viruses contain simple or double-stranded RNA/DNA genomes and protein coverings are used in nanotechnology because they can infect, transport nucleic acid genome to a specific host cell location, replicate, package, and exit host cell orderly. Young et al. [33] evaluated plant viruses as nanomaterial bio templates and their utilization. It can be engineered for controlled release of active ingredients, matching the timing of pesticide application to the life cycle of target pests or specific environmental conditions. For instance, polymer-based nano-encapsulated pesticides can protect active ingredients from premature degradation and release them in response to specific environmental triggers, such as pH changes or enzymatic activity [34]. A notable example of nano-pesticides in action is the use of silica nanoparticles for the delivery of essential oils known for their insecticidal properties, often exhibit volatility and rapid degradation under field conditions. Encapsulating these oils in silica nanoparticles not only stabilizes them but also enhances their insecticidal activity against pests like the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) [35]. This method not only increases the efficacy of the active ingredient but also reduces the frequency of application, thereby lowering the overall chemical load in the environment. Furthermore, nano-pesticides can be designed to exploit the natural physiology of pests, leading to more effective pest control strategies. For example, silver nanoparticles have been found to exhibit significant antimicrobial properties, making them effective against a wide range of agricultural pathogens. Studies have shown that silver nanoparticles can effectively inhibit the growth of fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases, such as Fusarium oxysporum and Xanthomonas compestris, without causing harm to the plants themselves [36]. This targeted approach not only increases the effectiveness of pest control but also reduces the likelihood of developing pesticide-resistant pest populations. Therefore, comprehensive risk assessments and the development of regulatory frameworks are essential to ensure the safe use of nano-pesticides [37].
Nanotechnology-based sensors
Nano-sensors have emerged as powerful tools for monitoring various aspects of agricultural systems (Fig. 3), including soil conditions (moisture content, nutrient levels, pH, and salinity with high sensitivity and precision), crop health (chlorophyll content, photosynthetic activity, and stress responses) and environmental factors (temperature, humidity, air quality, and pollution levels in agricultural settings) as indicated in Table 1. This real-time soil monitoring allows farmers to optimize irrigation scheduling, fertilizer application, and soil management practices for improved crop productivity and resource efficiency. Nano-sensors by detecting early signs of disease, nutrient deficiencies, or environmental stressors, nano-sensors enable timely interventions to prevent crop losses and optimize yield potential by allowing minimum chemical intervention. In order to determine whether phytopathogens, biotic stressors, and abiotic stressors are present, biosensors are currently being developed. This will allow for the timely repair of these stressors without impacting crop productivity. These sensors leverage the unique properties of nanomaterials to detect and respond to biological and chemical signals with high sensitivity and specificity. For instance, carbon nanotubes and graphene-based sensors can detect specific gases or chemicals at very low concentrations, making them ideal for agricultural applications. Traditional soil testing methods can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, often resulting in delayed responses to soil nutrient deficiencies. Nano-sensors, however, can provide real-time data on soil conditions, enabling immediate corrective actions. In Australia, researchers have developed nano-sensors that detect nitrate levels in the soil, allowing farmers to optimize fertilizer use and minimize environmental impact from over-fertilization [38]. In plant health monitoring, nano-sensors have shown remarkable capabilities in early disease detection.
Fig. 3 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Uses of nano-sensors in agricultural systems
Table 1. Various applications of nano-sensors in agriculture
Application | Study area | Benefits | Citations |
|---|---|---|---|
Soil Health Monitoring | Nano-sensors for detecting nitrate levels | • Real-time data on soil conditions • Optimized fertilizer use • Reduced environmental impact from over-fertilization | [38] |
Plant Health Monitoring | Nano-sensors detecting VOCs emitted by plants under stress or pathogen attack | • Early disease detection • Reduced crop losses • Targeted and timely intervention • Enhanced plant health management | [39] |
Water Management | Nano-sensors monitoring soil moisture levels | • Efficient water use • Real-time data on soil moisture • Optimized irrigation schedules • Improved crop yields | [41] |
Smart Farming Systems | Integrated nano-sensors with IoT for greenhouse monitoring | • Monitoring of environmental conditions • Enhanced crop productivity • Data-driven decision making • Efficient resource management | [8] |
Waste management | Recycling of agricultural wastes and reduction of waste size through nano-sensors | • Nutrient Recovery • Reduction of Environmental Impact • Cost-Effective • Improved Soil Health • Enhanced Monitoring | [42] |
Post-harvest quality control | Nano-sensors can monitor the quality and freshness of stored produce | • Ensure food safety during transportation and storage • Precise detection of spoilage • Maintenance of physico-chemical and nutritional quality | [43] |
Livestock health monitoring | Nano-sensors can monitor the health and well-being of livestock | • Timely detection of diseases • Proper nutrition and care | [44] |
For example, researchers in the United States have developed a nanosensor that can detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by plants when they are under stress or attacked by pathogens. These sensors can identify the specific VOCs associated with diseases such as powdery mildew in grapevines, enabling early intervention and reducing crop losses [39]. The study showed that nano-sensor-based monitoring led to a 20% increase in crop yields and a 30% reduction in water and fertilizer usage compared to fields managed with traditional practices [40]. These sensors provide real-time data that helps farmers optimize irrigation schedules, conserving water and improving crop yields [36]. Furthermore, nano-sensors are being integrated with Internet of Things (IoT) platforms, creating smart farming systems. These systems collect data from nano-sensors distributed across fields and use machine learning algorithms to analyze the data and provide actionable insights. In the Netherlands, such integrated systems have been employed to monitor greenhouse environments, optimizing temperature, humidity, and nutrient delivery to enhance crop productivity [8]. As the technology continues to evolve, the integration of nano-sensors in agriculture is expected to further enhance the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural production worldwide.
Nano-delivery systems for genetic material
Nanotechnology facilitates the targeted delivery of genetic material, such as genes or RNA molecules, into plants for genetic engineering and crop improvement. This enables the development of genetically modified crops with enhanced traits, such as resistance to pests, diseases, or environmental stress. Nano-delivery systems for genetic material hold immense potential for improving crop traits, enhancing agricultural productivity, and enabling sustainable farming practices [45]. Nanoparticles, liposomes, dendrimers, and other nanostructures can encapsulate or carry genetic cargo and facilitate its uptake by plant cells, overcoming cellular barriers and enhancing transfection efficiency. They can shield nucleic acids from degradation by nucleases, enzymes, or environmental factors, ensuring their integrity and functionality until they reach their target site within plant cells and allowing for sustained expression or modulation of target genes over time. By regulating the released kinetics, nanoparticles can achieve optimal gene expression levels and desired phenotypic outcomes without causing off-target effects or cytotoxicity. Nano-delivery systems can be engineered to achieve specific targeting and selective delivery of genetic material to particular tissues, organs, or cell types within plants. Compared to traditional methods such as Agrobacterium-mediated transformation or particle bombardment, nano-delivery systems require lower amounts of genetic material and reduce the risk of unintended genetic modifications or gene flow to non-target organisms. Nano-delivery systems can deliver various types of genetic material, including DNA, RNA, small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and genome editing tools (e.g., CRISPR/Cas systems). In the study, there is revelation that the genetic implications of such NP-induced positive changes have been validated through investigations on enhanced mRNA expression and protein level in spinach [46] by nano-TiO2, generational transmission of fullerol through seeds in rice [47, 48] and changes in gene expression at plant and cellular levels in vitex plant [49] by MWCNTs. This versatility enables the manipulation of multiple genetic targets, gene expression pathways, and regulatory mechanisms for trait improvement in crops nano-delivery systems hold great promise for advancing genetic engineering and biotechnology in agriculture, offering innovative solutions for crop improvement, pest and disease resistance, stress tolerance, and nutritional enhancement. pre-addition of either Si or SiNp protects wheat seedlings against UV-B stress by protecting photosynthesis and regulating level of oxidative stress. NO might have played crucial roles in differential behaviors of Si and SiNp under UV-B stress [50]. Continued research and development in nanotechnology and genetic delivery technologies will further unlock their potential and accelerate their adoption in sustainable agriculture, as there are several risks related with genetic modification and GMOs such as harm to non-target species and disruption of ecosystems. There are also concerns about human health effects, including allergenicity and long-term exposure consequences.
Nanotechnology for water management
Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions for water management in agriculture, addressing challenges such as water scarcity, irrigation efficiency, and water quality. Nanomaterials are organic, inorganic and polymer based which pay important role in agricultural water management through various processes (Fig. 4). Nanoparticles such as iron oxide, titanium dioxide and carbon-based nanomaterials have been used for water purification in agricultural settings [51]. These nanomaterials can remove contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, pathogens, and organic pollutants through processes such as adsorption, photocatalysis, and filtration, thereby improving water quality for irrigation and crop production. Nano-enabled technologies improve water quality, conserve water resources, and mitigate the impact of drought and water scarcity on agricultural production [52].
Fig. 4 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Uses of nanotechnology in water management
Nanotechnology-based desalination technologies, such as membrane distillation and reverse osmosis membranes enhanced with nanomaterials, can effectively remove salt and other dissolved minerals from brackish or saline water sources. This enables the use of brackish or seawater for irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions where freshwater resources are limited. Nanomaterials used in agricultural field can improve the efficiency of irrigation systems by reducing water losses due to evaporation, runoff, and percolation. For example, nano-scale water-absorbent polymers can be incorporated into soil amendments or irrigation water to enhance water retention in the root zone and reduce the frequency of irrigation, thereby conserving water resources and improving water use efficiency [53]. Nanosensors equipped with nanomaterial-based probes can provide real-time monitoring of soil moisture content and water availability in agricultural fields. Nano coatings applied to irrigation equipment, such as sprinklers and drip emitters, can reduce water losses due to evaporation, wind drift, and surface runoff. These hydrophobic or superhydrophobic nanocoating repel water and prevent adhesion of soil particles and organic matter, improving the uniformity and effectiveness of water distribution during irrigation. Nano sensors equipped with nanomaterial-based probes can detect waterborne contaminants, pollutants, and pathogens in agricultural water sources such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. This real-time water quality monitoring helps to ensure the safety of irrigation water and prevents contamination of crops with harmful substances. For example, constructed wetlands have been effectively used to reduce nutrient loads, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, from agricultural runoff, thereby preventing eutrophication of downstream water bodies [49]. The use of constructed wetlands not only improves water quality but also provides additional benefits such as habitat creation and biodiversity enhancement. For instance, nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) particles have been widely studied for their ability to degrade organic pollutants, such as pesticides and herbicides, through reductive dichlorination [54]. Similarly, titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles have been used for photocatalytic degradation of organic contaminants in water, harnessing solar energy to drive the purification process [28]. Precision irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems, deliver water directly to the root zone of plants, reducing water wastage and improving irrigation efficiency [40].
Implementing rainwater harvesting systems can significantly reduce dependence on external water sources and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems to climate variability [46]. This approach not only conserves water but also enhances crop yields by providing optimal moisture conditions for plant growth.
Nano-enabled seed technology
Agrochemical-based seed treatments improve germination but may adversely affect the environment as well. Many chemicals, including H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), NO (nitric oxide), PAs (polyamines) and H2S (hydrogen sulphide), have been proved to be effective as priming agents in past years [55]. Yet, there are certain difficulties associated with chemical priming. According to Shelar et al. [56], priming-based seed treatment shows promise in boosting resilience to abiotic and biotic stressors, encouraging germination, and improving yield and quality. Sustainable methods, such as nano-based agrochemicals, are in great demand in this climate changing era. Nano-enabled seed technology involves the application of nanomaterials to seeds known as nano-priming to enhance their germination, growth, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. This technology can improve seed coating processes, providing a protective layer that delivers nutrients, pesticides, and growth-promoting substances directly to the seedling [68]. Seeds coated with nanoparticles of zinc or iron can address micronutrient deficiencies in soils, leading to healthier plant development and improved crop yields [30, 46] and reducing the need for chemical inputs during the early stages of plant growth. Moreover, overnight seed priming with 50 μg mL−1 of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) improved and accelerated germination, increased biomass accumulation, and enhanced water absorption potential in wheat, maize, and groundnut seeds [57]. Similarly, the application of nano-SiO2, TiO2, and zeolite positively stimulates seed germination in different crops like wheat, barley, maize and soyabean [58–60].
Food packaging and preservation in agriculture
Biodegradable and edible packaging materials are gaining traction as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastic packaging. Various applications of nanotechnology in food packaging and preservation are prevalent which are very beneficial in sustainable production systems (Table 2). A notable example is the incorporation of silver nanoparticles into packaging films, which has been shown to effectively reduce bacterial growth on fresh produce [11]. This technology helps in maintaining the freshness of the products and reduces the risk of foodborne illnesses. Another significant advancement in food packaging is the use of intelligent packaging systems provides real-time information about the condition of the packaged food, such as temperature, humidity, and freshness indicators [61]. These systems often employ sensors or indicators that change color or display information when certain conditions are met. For example, time–temperature indicators (TTIs) can signal whether a product has been exposed to temperatures outside the recommended range during transportation or storage. This allows for better monitoring and management of food quality throughout the supply chain, ensuring that consumers receive products in optimal condition. These materials are derived from natural sources such as polysaccharides, proteins and lipids and decompose naturally, reducing the environmental burden associated with plastic waste. Edible coatings made from substances like chitosan and alginate can be applied directly to fruits and vegetables to form a protective barrier against moisture loss and microbial contamination [62]. Such coatings not only enhance the shelf life of fresh produce but also offer the added benefit of being safe for consumption. In addition to packaging innovations, preservation techniques play a crucial role in extending the shelf life and maintaining the quality of agricultural products. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a widely used preservation method that alters the composition of the gases surrounding the food inside the packaging. By adjusting the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, MAP can significantly slow down the respiration and spoilage processes in fresh produce [63]. This technique is particularly effective for perishable items like fruits, vegetables and meats, allowing them to stay fresh for longer periods without the need for chemical preservatives. Another effective preservation method is the application of natural preservatives, which cater to the growing consumer preference for clean label products. Natural preservatives such as essential oils, organic acids, and plant extracts possess antimicrobial and antioxidant properties that help in preserving food quality. For example, the use of rosemary extract has been shown to effectively delay lipid oxidation and microbial growth in meat products [44]. These natural alternatives not only enhance the safety and shelf life of food but also align with consumer demands for healthier and more natural food products.
Table 2. Applications of nanotechnology in preservation of food products
Aspect | Description | Examples | References |
|---|---|---|---|
Active packaging | Packaging that interacts with food to extend shelf life and enhance safety | Silver nanoparticles in packaging films to reduce bacterial growth on produce | [11] |
Biodegradable and edible packaging | Sustainable alternatives to plastic, derived from natural sources | Edible coatings from chitosan and alginate | [64] |
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) | Alters gas composition inside packaging to slow spoilage | Adjusting levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen for fresh produce | [65] |
Natural preservatives | Use of antimicrobial and antioxidant properties from natural sources | Rosemary extract to delay lipid oxidation and microbial growth in meat products | [44, 66] |
Potential impacts of nano-material
On plant growth and productivity
Multiple studies have been conducted on effect of nanotechnology in different crops. During the past few years, there has been extensive interest in applying NPs to plants for agricultural management [67]. Generally, nanoparticles enter plants primarily through root uptake or leaf absorption. Once inside, they move through the plant's vascular system, interacting with plant cells and tissues. These nanoparticles can enhance plant growth by improving nutrient uptake and stimulating various metabolic pathways. Additionally, they can act as carriers for agrochemicals, leading to more efficient and targeted delivery of fertilizers, pesticides, and other growth-promoting substances. Millan et al. [68] stated that NH4+ occupying the internal channels of zeolite may be released slowly and freely, thereby allowing the progressive absorption by the crop which is reflected in higher dry matter production of the crop. In India, researchers conducted a field study to evaluate the efficacy of nano-fertilizers in rice cultivation. Traditional urea was compared with nano-urea, which consists of nitrogen particles at the nanoscale. The study showed that nano-urea improved nitrogen use efficiency by more than 30%, leading to a 10–20% increase in rice yield compared to conventional urea. Moreover, the use of nano-urea reduced the total amount of fertilizer needed, minimizing environmental runoff and pollution. Field trials demonstrated that the nano-pesticides were more effective in reducing pest populations than traditional pesticides, requiring lower dosages and resulting in fewer applications. This not only improved crop protection but also reduced the environmental impact and the risk of pest resistance [69].
On soil health
Nanomaterials such as nano-sized fertilizers and soil amendments have been developed to improve nutrient availability and cycling in soils. These nanomaterials can enhance the efficiency of nutrient uptake by plants, reduce nutrient leaching and runoff, and improve soil fertility and productivity. For example, nano-fertilizers can deliver nutrients in a controlled-release manner, matching the nutrient requirements of crops and minimizing nutrient losses to the environment [70]. Nano zinc and phosphorus fertilizers can facilitate the controlled release and efficient delivery of these nutrients, promoting better mutual bonding in the soil through their synergistic effects. This enhanced bonding increases nutrient uptake by plants and minimizes losses due to leaching or fixation, ultimately leading to improved soil fertility and plant growth. On the other hand, nanotechnology can enhance nutrient availability in soil by facilitating the delivery of nutrients in forms that are more readily absorbed by plants. Nano-fertilizers can improve the solubility and stability of nutrients, ensuring that they are more accessible and efficiently taken up by plant roots, even when nutrients are present in limited or less available forms. Nanomaterials such as nano-clays and nano-scale silica particles can improve soil structure and stability by enhancing aggregation, water retention, and aeration. These nanomaterials can help mitigate soil erosion, compaction, and degradation, thereby promoting soil health and resilience to environmental stresses and can enhance microbial activity and diversity in soils, leading to improved soil bioremediation capabilities [71, 72].
Biotic and abiotic remediation techniques through nano-particles
Nanoparticles can be used for soil remediation by immobilizing pollutants, enhancing soil structure, and promoting microbial activity. This helps remediate contaminated soils, improve soil fertility, and restore degraded land for sustainable agriculture. Nanomaterials have shown promise for soil remediation, offering innovative solutions for addressing various soil contaminants and improving soil quality. Nanomaterials such as nanoparticles of zero-valent iron (nZVI), TiO2, and iron oxide nanoparticles have been used to remediate soils contaminated with heavy metals, organic pollutants such as hydrocarbons, pesticides, and industrial chemicals. These nanomaterials can immobilize or remove heavy metals through processes such as adsorption, precipitation, and redox reactions, thereby reducing their bioavailability and toxicity to plants and organisms and can enhance the degradation of organic contaminants through processes such as adsorption, oxidation, and photocatalysis, leading to their transformation into less harmful or non-toxic forms. Certain nanomaterials, such as nano-scale zero-valent iron and carbon-based nanomaterials, can serve as electron donors or acceptors for microbial metabolism, facilitating the degradation of organic pollutants and the transformation of inorganic contaminants [73]. Nanomaterial-based delivery systems can encapsulate and release remediation agents, such as enzymes, microbes, or chemicals, in a controlled manner to target specific contaminants or soil conditions. These smart delivery systems enhance the efficacy and efficiency of soil remediation treatments while minimizing off-target effects and environmental risks (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 [Images not available. See PDF.]
Techniques of remediation of contaminants
Benefits of nanotechnology in agriculture
Traditional agricultural methods have long been associated with significant environmental impacts, including soil degradation, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. These impacts stem primarily from the extensive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and inefficient irrigation practices. As the global population continues to grow, the pressure on agricultural systems to produce more food with fewer resources intensifies, exacerbating these environmental issues. However, the advent of nanotechnology in agriculture presents promising solutions to mitigate these adverse effects by enhancing resource efficiency and reducing the reliance on chemical inputs.
Improved soil conditions
Soil degradation is a critical issue in traditional agriculture, often resulting from the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can lead to soil acidification, nutrient imbalance, and the destruction of beneficial soil microorganisms. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to address these problems. For instance, nano-fertilizers are designed to release nutrients slowly and in a controlled manner, ensuring that plants receive the necessary nutrients over a longer period. This reduces the frequency of fertilizer application and minimizes nutrient leaching into the soil. A study by Subramanian and Tarafdar [10]. Demonstrated that the use of nano-fertilizers can enhance nutrient uptake efficiency by up to 30%, thereby improving soil health and fertility. Furthermore, addition of Mg nano-oxide increased the void ratio under various stresses and significantly reduced the bulk density compared to Fe nano-oxide, thereby improving conditions for root growth. In contrast, Fe nano-oxide enhanced the tensile strength of soil aggregates by strengthening the bonds between Fe and soil particles, particularly at higher matric suctions [74]. Lignocellulosic nano-polymers possess numerous hydroxyl groups, enabling them to form strong hydrogen bonds with water and making them excellent candidates for surface modification, which allows them to create hydrogels useful for soil conditioning. Additionally, cellulose nanofibers have been shown to significantly increase water retention, with soils treated with 1% superabsorbent exhibiting slower water evaporation and delaying wilting by up to 20 days, highlighting their potential in improving water retention and soil conditioning [75].
Reduced water pollution
Water pollution is another significant environmental concern associated with traditional agricultural practices. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides often leads to nutrient runoff, contaminating water bodies and causing eutrophication, which depletes oxygen levels and harms aquatic life. Nanotechnology can help mitigate this problem through the use of nano-sensors and nano-fertilizers. Nano-sensors enable precise monitoring of soil moisture and nutrient levels, allowing for more accurate irrigation and fertilization practices. This precision reduces water consumption and nutrient runoff, protecting aquatic ecosystems [76]. Additionally, nano-fertilizers, with their controlled-release properties, ensure that nutrients are released in sync with plant uptake, further reducing the risk of water pollution.
Biodiversity protection
The loss of biodiversity is a major consequence of traditional agricultural practices, largely due to habitat destruction, monoculture practices, and the widespread use of chemical pesticides. Nanotechnology can play a crucial role in preserving biodiversity by reducing the need for chemical pesticides through the use of nano-pesticides. Nano-pesticides are designed to target specific pests at the nanoscale, minimizing the impact on non-target organisms such as beneficial insects, birds, and soil microorganisms. For example, Khot et al. [66]. Reported that nano-pesticides could achieve effective pest control with lower chemical loads, reducing the potential for environmental contamination and protecting biodiversity. Nanotechnology can aid in biodiversity protection and ecosystem balance by enabling precise monitoring of environmental conditions and species health through nano-sensors. It can also enhance habitat restoration efforts with targeted delivery of nutrients and growth-promoting substances. Additionally, nanotechnology can help in saving endangered species by developing advanced methods for disease detection and treatment, and by creating more effective conservation strategies with minimal disruption to natural habitats [77].
Reduced greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs)
Agricultural activities are significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily due to the use of synthetic fertilizers and the methane emissions from livestock. Nanotechnology can help reduce these emissions in several ways. For example, nano-fertilizers not only improve nutrient use efficiency but also reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers, which are energy-intensive to produce. Furthermore, nano-based feed additives for livestock can enhance digestion and reduce methane emissions. A study by Sathya et al. [78] found that nano-supplements in animal feed could reduce methane emissions by up to 20%, contributing to lower greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Moreover, nanotechnology can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) by optimizing fertilizer use and enhancing soil carbon sequestration. Applications include using nano-fertilizers to increase nutrient efficiency, thereby minimizing excess application, and employing nanomaterials in soil amendments to enhance carbon capture and storage which helps to tackle with climate change. It also aids in developing climate-resilient crops by enabling better stress tolerance and optimizing crop protection, thus ensuring greater productivity and sustainability in changing climatic conditions [79].
Economic viability
Long-term economic benefits can be substantial; however, the initial cost of implementing nano-enabled technologies may be higher than traditional methods. Nano-fertilizers and nano-pesticides improve crop yields and reduce the need for repeated applications, resulting in lower overall costs for farmers. For instance, nano-fertilizers release nutrients more efficiently, ensuring that plants receive a steady supply of essential minerals over an extended period. This controlled release mechanism reduces the frequency of fertilization required and minimizes nutrient loss through leaching or volatilization [13]. Similarly, nano-pesticides are designed to target specific pests more effectively, reducing the overall quantity of chemicals needed and limiting exposure to non-target organisms [40]. These improvements in resource use efficiency translate into significant cost savings over time. Additionally, the enhanced efficiency and productivity of nano-enabled practices can lead to higher profits and more sustainable farming operations. By optimizing the delivery of inputs, nanotechnology helps in achieving higher crop yields and better-quality produce. For example, studies have shown that the use of nano-silicon in rice cultivation can increase grain yield and enhance resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses [80]. This not only boosts the income of farmers but also contributes to food security by ensuring a stable supply of agricultural products. The reduced environmental footprint and improved sustainability of nano-enabled agricultural practices also appeal to consumers and regulators who are increasingly concerned with the environmental impact of agriculture. This growing consumer preference for sustainably produced food provides an additional market incentive for farmers to adopt nanotechnology. Rai et al. [81] compared traditional and nano-enabled fertilizers and found that nano-fertilizers could increase tomato yields by up to 30% while using 50% less fertilizer which demonstrate the tangible benefits of nanotechnology in enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability. Another case study on nano-pesticides indicated a significant reduction in pest populations with lower environmental impact compared to conventional pesticides [69]. Tiwari et al. [82] found a net benefit of ₹ 15,580 (U$D 185) ha−1 by applying 50% N through conventional fertilizer along with two sprays of nano-N as compared to conventional N fertilizer in potato. Whereas, application 75% NPK + nano-N in wheat recorded highest benefit: cost ratio of 5.51 by enhancing nutrient use efficiency, reducing the amount of fertilizer needed, and minimizing environmental impact [83].
For instance, nano-sensors can detect nutrient deficiencies or pest infestations early, enabling timely interventions that can prevent crop losses and improve yields [84]. The European Union’s Horizon 2020 program includes funding for projects aimed at developing sustainable nanotechnology applications in agriculture [85]. Such initiatives are likely to accelerate the commercialization and adoption of nanotechnology in farming.
Future prospects
The integration of nanotechnology in agriculture promotes sustainable practices by enhancing resource use efficiency, reducing environmental contamination, and preserving natural ecosystems. For instance, the use of nano-sensors for precision farming enables real-time monitoring of crop health, soil conditions, and environmental factors. This information allows farmers to make data-driven decisions, optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impact. Moreover, the development of biodegradable and environmentally friendly nanomaterials ensures that the benefits of nanotechnology do not come at the expense of environmental health. It holds significant potential to transform agriculture by mitigating the environmental impacts associated with traditional farming practices. By enhancing the efficiency of resource use and reducing the need for chemical inputs, nanotechnology can help protect soil health, prevent water pollution, preserve biodiversity, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The commercial use of nanotechnology in agriculture includes products like nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, and nano-sensors, which enhance productivity and sustainability. However, regulatory issues arise concerning the safety, environmental impact, and long-term effects of these nanomaterials. Addressing these concerns requires robust regulatory frameworks and standardized testing protocols to ensure safe deployment and public acceptance of nanotechnology products. While, nanotechnology offers numerous benefits in agriculture, including enhanced efficiency and precision, its limitations include high development costs, potential environmental and health risks, and regulatory challenges. The applicability of nanotechnology may be constrained by the need for extensive research to understand long-term effects and the requirement for infrastructure and expertise to implement nano-based solutions effectively. Additionally, the adoption of nanotechnology in agriculture might face resistance due to concerns about its impact on biodiversity and ecosystem balance. As research and development in this field continue to advance, the adoption of nanotechnology in agriculture is likely to play a crucial role in achieving sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural systems.
Conclusion
This review summarizes the current progresses of nanotechnology in the field of agriculture, food production, and livestock management. Nanotechnology is a part of precision farming which maximizes outputs and minimizes inputs through exact monitoring and targeted activities. Farmers and the food industry can be benefited from increased food production and innovation in processing, preservation, and packaging. Furthermore, nanosensors and nanobiosensors for pathogen detection, soil quality evaluation, and plant health monitoring are expected in the agri-food sector. Nanoporous zeolites can distribute water, fertilizers, minerals, and medications to plants and livestock slowly and efficiently. Moreover, nanocapsules provide tailored agrochemical distribution. Biofuels, nanocomposites for food packaging polymeric film coatings, and antibacterial nanoemulsions for food decontamination are also promising. In addition, nanobiosensors can detect pathogens, and nanotechnology improves plant and animal breeding. As we have discussed several uses of nanotechnology in agriculture, but we must perform extensive study to understand and mitigate health and environmental hazards of it. To maximize its benefits and create a sustainable and secure food supply chain, nanotechnology must be used safely and responsibly. Thus, nanotechnology in agriculture can improve productivity, food security, environmental sustainability, and economic growth.
Acknowledgements
The assistance and direction provided by each and every electronic database that has been subjected to peer review is greatly appreciated.
Author contributions
Lalita Rana, Manish Kumar, Jitendra Rajput, Navnit Kumar: Conceptualization, Lalita Rana, Sumit Sow, Sarvesh Kumar, Anil Kumar, S.N. Singh, C.K. Jha, A.K. Singh: Investigation; Lalita Rana, Manish Kumar, Jitendra Rajput, Navnit Kumar, Sumit Sow: writing-original draft preparation, Lalita Rana, Shivani Ranjan, Ritwik Sahoo, Dinabandhu Samanta, Dibyajyoti Nath, Rakesh Panday, Babu Lal Raigar: review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
NA.
Data availability
No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Abstract
Sustainable agriculture is crucial for meeting the growing global food demand. With the pressure of climate change, resource depletion, and the need for increased agricultural productivity, innovative approaches are essential. Nanotechnology is an emerging technology in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs). Despite its promising benefits, the safe implementation of nanotechnology in agriculture requires careful consideration of potential health and environmental risks. However, there is a lack of comprehensive documentation on the application, potential and limitations of nanotechnology in the field of agriculture. To address this gap, a desk research approach was used by utilizing peer-reviewed electronic databases like PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Science Direct for relevant articles. Out of 157 initially identified articles, 85 were deemed pertinent, focusing primarily on potential nanotechnology in smart agricultural systems. Taking into account research findings worldwide, we found significant improvements with nanotechnology over traditional methods which underscores the practical benefits of nanotechnology, including increased crop yields, efficient resource use, and reduced environmental footprint. The objective of this systematic review is to explore the nexus between nanotechnology and agricultural systems, highlighting its potential to enhance productivity, sustainability, and resilience and to inform researchers, practitioners, and policymakers about the transformative impact of nanotechnology on sustainable agriculture and underscores the need for further research to address safety concerns and maximize its potential for agricultural advancement.
Article highlights
A thorough study of nanotechnology's new method to lessen fertilizer and pesticide harmful impacts and their responsibilities.
Developing an integrated approach for smart farming systems.
A guide for future nanotechnology studies in agriculture suggests breakthroughs in biotic and abiotic remediation using nano-particles for a safe climate change scenario.
Identifying setbacks, limitations, and solutions.
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1 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Agronomy, Sugarcane Research Institute, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 0701 9212)
2 Banaras Hindu University, Department of Geology, Varanasi, India (GRID:grid.411507.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 2287 8816)
3 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Division of Agricultural Engineering, New Delhi, India (GRID:grid.418196.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2172 0814)
4 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Agronomy, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6)
5 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6)
6 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Entomology, Sugarcane Research Institute, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 0701 9212)
7 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Plant Pathology, Sugarcane Research Institute, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 0701 9212)
8 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science, Sugarcane Research Institute, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444714.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 0701 9212)
9 Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Department of Plant Pathology, Cooch Behar, India (GRID:grid.444527.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 1756 1867)
10 Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Department of Pomology and Post-Harvest Technology, Cooch Behar, India (GRID:grid.444527.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 1756 1867)
11 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.444527.4)
12 Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Jhansi, India (GRID:grid.517805.e) (ISNI:0000 0004 8338 7406)
13 Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science, Samastipur, India (GRID:grid.517805.e)