Influences of Cr(VI) on SOD Activity, MDA, and MT Content in the Hepatopancreas and Gill of Portunus trituberculatus

Abstract

The toxic effect and differences of Cr(VI) on superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, MDA, and metallothionein (MT) content in the hepatopancreas and gill of Portunus trituberculatus were investigated during Cr(VI) enrichment (15 days) and release experiments (15 days). Results showed that the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups significantly exhibited higher SOD, MDA, and MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill compared with the control group after 15 days of enrichment (p < 0.05). After 15 days of Cr release, the SOD, MDA, and MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of both test groups recovered to the normal level of the control group (p > 0.05). The gill of P. trituberculatus achieved the highest SOD activity, MDA, and MT content earlier than the hepatopancreas, but the highest values were lower. The gill showed a shorter recovery time than the hepatopancreas. We concluded that the gill of P. trituberculatus exhibited a more rapid response to, and recovery from, Cr(VI) exposure compared to the hepatopancreas, making it a more sensitive tissue for assessing Cr(VI) toxicity, though both tissues showed a capacity for recovery after the removal of the contaminant.

1. Introduction

Cr is widely applied in numerous industries, such as metallurgy, leather, and electroplate. It is one of the major heavy metal pollutants in the ocean water environment. Sewage discharge is an important source of Cr. Most Cr exists as Cr(III) and Cr(VI). Cr(VI) can be easily dissolved in water in contrast to Cr(III) compounds; thus, Cr(VI) is soluble in water under natural conditions [1,2]. Cr with different valence states exerts varied toxicities. Cr(III) is useful to organisms, serving as an important component of the glucose tolerance factor, where it participates in the metabolism of sugar and fat by intensifying insulin activity, thus significantly influencing physiological regulation and growth. Cr(VI) is an internationally recognized heavy metal carcinogen and can invade cells more quickly than Cr(III). Therefore, the toxicity of Cr(VI) is 100–1000 times higher than that of Cr(III) [3]. Although Cr(VI) cannot be degraded by microorganisms, it can be absorbed by aquatic organisms and can accumulate in living bodies through the food chain, thus generating toxic effects [4,5]. Cr(VI) can be transported into cells by carbonate, sulfate, and phosphate carrier systems as [CrO₄]²⁻. Once Cr(VI) enters into cells, a redox reaction with local reducing substances occurs immediately and produces a series of low-valence Cr, including Cr(V), Cr(IV), and Cr(III). Excessive Cr(III) in cells is easy to crosslink with DNA and causes various types of DNA damage [6]. Despite the direct effect of Cr(III), various types of ROS were produced during the reduction process of Cr(VI). The production of excessive ROS and the oxidative stress caused by it are key features of the toxic effect of Cr(VI) [7]. Antioxidase SOD plays an important role in defending living bodies against oxidation damage. It can produce responses to oxidative stress induced by exposure to heavy metal pollution [8]. However, the enhancement of SOD activity cannot indicate that the living body is suffering from oxidative damage. The LPO effect represented by MDA is the most representative index of LPO damage in living bodies [7]. Moreover, the redox reaction of Cr(VI) in cells generates abundant reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause a series of damaging effects, such as increasing lipid peroxidation, DNA oxidative damage, and abnormal protein expression [7]. All of these damages can be revealed by a series of sensitive toxicological indexes. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is typically found in its role as a defense against peroxidation damage [8]. Except for variations in antioxidant enzyme activities, metallothioneins (MTs) can be induced by heavy metals in the environment at the transcriptional level, and such induction is correlated with heavy metal concentration in the environment. Therefore, MTs can reflect the heavy metal pollution level in the environment [9,10]. Chromium-ion exposure can induce complex physiological changes in goldfish, affecting the activity of antioxidant and associated enzymes [11]. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) in living bodies can verify oxidative injuries related to heavy metals [12]. Several studies about the toxic effects of Cr(VI) on crabs are available in China and other countries [13,14]. However, they only focus on short-term toxicity stress, which only involves the bio-concentration stage of Cr(VI) and neglects the corresponding release stage.

Due to their benthic habits, crustaceans such as the Chinese shrimp (Fenneropenaeus chinensis) and swimming crab (Portunus trituberculatus) can accumulate contaminants from both water and food, making them useful indicator organisms for evaluating environmental pollution [15,16]. In this paper, variations of SOD activity, MDA, and MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of P. trituberculatus were analyzed through Cr(VI) enrichment and release experiments. The toxicity mechanism and physiological response of different biorgans, as well as corresponding differences, were discussed. Research results provide basic data to study the toxic effect of chronic Cr(VI) contamination stress on organisms and manage Cr(VI) pollution.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Test Materials

Seawater was collected from natural sea areas (salinity = 22 and pH = 8.20). It was deposited, sand filtered, and aerated fully (>24 h) before storage. P. trituberculatus samples (cultured in soil dike) were provided by Jiangsu Gold Coast Aquatic Product Institute (Nantong, Jiangsu, China). P. trituberculatus was reared for 15 days, and healthy individuals were selected for the succeeding tests. During the acclimatization period, all animals were fed regularly to ensure proper nutrition and optimal conditions for the subsequent experiments. The average mass of P. trituberculatus was (10.89 ± 2.20) g. In the experiment, 150 L glass containers were used, and Cr(VI) mother liquor concentrations of 1.50 mg/L and 0.30 mg/L were prepared using K₂Cr₂O₇ (analytically pure: Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) and distilled water.

2.2. Enrichment and Release Tests

The experiment was composed of enrichment and release stages, with 15 days for each stage. Three test concentrations were set, including two test groups and one control group. Each group was replicated thrice. The concentration gradients were 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L. Each container held 70 P. trituberculatus and was supplied with oxygen (dissolved oxygen > 5 mg/L) for 24 h. The water temperature during the experiment was 21–22 °C.

During the enrichment test, 100 L of seawater was added into the solutions and changed completely every 24 h. A total of six P. trituberculatus were collected at 0, 1, 5, 10, and 15 days. Their hepatopancreas and gill were extracted and frozen quickly in a refrigerator at −80 °C.

All solutions were discharged after completing the enrichment test. The release test was then conducted under controlled running water conditions at a flow rate of 3.6 L/h. The feeding conditions were the same as those during the enrichment test. A total of six P. trituberculatus were collected at 18, 20, 25, and 30 days and processed in the same way during the enrichment test.

2.3. Sample Preparation and Test of Toxicological Indexes

2.3.1. SOD Activity and MDA Content Test

An exact amount of hepatopancreas was added into pre-refrigerated (4 °C) phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) that contained 0.13 mol/L Na₂HPO₄·12H₂O, 0.13 mol/L KH₂PO₄, and 0.05 mol/L Na₂EDTA according to the volume:mass (Na₂HPO₄·12H₂O:KH₂PO₄:Na₂EDTA = 13:13:5) fraction and then homogenized in an ice bath for 3 min. Afterward, the homogenate was processed with refrigerated centrifugation at 10,000 r/min and 4 °C for 20 min. The supernate was used to determine SOD activity (U/mg(prot)) by the xanthine oxidase method [17] and MDA content (nmol/mg(prot)) by the thio-barbital method [18].

2.3.2. MT Content Test

Hepatopancreas samples were added into Tris–HCl(1 mol/L) buffer solution (pH 8.3) according to the mass (g):volume (mL) fraction (1:4) and then homogenized in an ice bath. Subsequently, the homogenate was processed with refrigerated centrifugation at 10,000 r/min and 0 °C for 30 min. The supernate was used to determine MT content by using the Cr-hemoglobin saturation method [19]. Cd ionic concentration was analyzed by atomic absorption (SOLAARM6; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). MT content (wet weight, ×10⁻³) was calculated, assuming each MT molecule contained 6 Cd²⁺ [20].

2.4. Data Processing and Analysis

All data were expressed as means (three parallel data) ± SD, and data differences between the experimental groups and control group were analyzed by Duncan’s test. Prior to the Duncan’s test, normality was assessed, and the data were confirmed to follow a normal distribution. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 22.0 software.

3. Results

3.1. Effect of Cr(VI) on SOD Activity Induction in the Hepatopancreas and Gill of P. trituberculatus

During the enrichment stage, the SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups was significantly induced at the first day (p < 0.05). The SOD activity in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 mg/L test group continued to increase and then decreased, reaching the peak at the 10th day; the activity of this group was 4.89 times higher than that of the control group. The SOD activity in the hepatopancreas of the 0.30 mg/L test group continued to increase and reached the peak at the 15th day; the activity of this group was 3.48 times higher than that of the control group (Figure 1a). The SOD activity in the gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased initially and then decreased, reaching the peak at the fifth day; the SOD activity of this group was 3.43 and 2.14 times higher than that of the control group (Figure 1b). During the entire enrichment stage, the SOD activities in both the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 mg/L test group were higher than in the 0.30 mg/L test group. In the release stage, the SOD activity in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups decreased continuously. The 1.50 mg/L group recovered to the normal level at the 30th day (p > 0.05), whereas the 0.30 mg/L group recovered at the 25th day (p > 0.05) (Figure 1a). The SOD activities in the gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups recovered to the normal level at the 25th day (p > 0.05) and 20th day (p > 0.05), respectively (Figure 1b).

3.2. Effect of Cr(VI) on the MDA Content in the Hepatopancreas and Gill of P. trituberculatus

During the enrichment stage, the MDA content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased significantly at the first day (p < 0.05). The content continued to increase and reached the peak at the 15th day. The highest MDA contents in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups were 2.42 and 1.83 times higher than in the control group (Figure 2a), respectively, whereas the highest MDA contents in the gill were 5.54 and 3.76 times higher, respectively (Figure 2b). In the entire enrichment stage, the MDA contents in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 mg/L test group were higher than those of the 0.30 mg/L test group. In the release period, the MDA contents in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups declined continuously. The MDA content in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 mg/L test group recovered to the normal level at the 30th day (p > 0.05), and that of the 0.30 mg/L test group recovered at the 25th day (p > 0.05) (Figure 2a). The MDA content in the gill of the 1.50 mg/L test group recovered to the normal level at the 25th day (p > 0.05), and that of the 0.30 mg/L test group recovered at the 20th day (p > 0.05) (Figure 2b).

3.3. Effect of Cr(VI) on the MT Content in the Hepatopancreas and Gill of P. trituberculatus

During the enrichment stage, the MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased significantly at the first day (p < 0.05). The MT content in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 mg/L test group continued to increase and then decreased, reaching the peak at the 10th day; the MT content of this group was 5.58 times higher than that of the control group. The MT content in the hepatopancreas of the 0.30 mg/L test group continued to increase and reached the peak at the 15th day; the MT content of the test group was 5.09 times higher than that of the control group (Figure 3a). The MT content in the gill of both test groups increased initially and then decreased, reaching the peak at the 5th and 10th days. The highest MT contents in the gill of the 1.5 and 0.30 mg/L test groups were 6.93 and 4.76 times higher than in the control group. At the 15th day, the MT content in the gill of both test groups was still far higher than that of the control group (p < 0.05) (Figure 3b). In the release stage, the MT content in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 mg/L and 0.30 mg/L test groups reduced continuously. The MT content in the hepatopancreas of the 1.50 mg/L test group was significantly higher than that of the control group at the 30th day (p < 0.05), and the MT content in the gill of the 0.30 mg/L test group recovered to the normal level at the 25th day (p > 0.05) (Figure 3a). The MT content in the gill of two test groups increased slightly, decreased continuously, and then recovered to the normal level at the 30th day (p < 0.05) (Figure 3b).

The hepatopancreas is more responsive and sensitive to Cr(VI) exposure, making it the preferred tissue for toxicity investigations. The responses in the hepatopancreas are sustained for a longer duration, with higher peaks in all measured parameters. The hepatopancreas takes longer to recover from Cr(VI) exposure than the gills. It is more sensitive to toxicity. The hepatopancreas consistently exhibited higher levels of oxidative stress markers (MDA) and detoxification-related proteins (MT) than the gill.

4. Discussion

In this experiment, the SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill of both the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased significantly at the first day (p < 0.05), and the 1.50 mg/L test group showed higher SOD activity than the 0.30 mg/L test group (p < 0.05). This result indicates, on one hand, that the SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill could be induced quickly upon Cr(VI) stress to eliminate ROS. However, it could not establish a new balance between ROS generation and elimination. ROS productivity was still higher than the elimination capacity of SOD; thus, the organisms continued to mobilize the compensatory adaptive functions of the body, and the SOD activity enhanced continuously. On the other hand, it proved that an evident relationship existed between Cr(VI) content and SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill. This relationship is consistent with the relationship between Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Cd²⁺ contents and SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill of Eriocheir sinensis [21]. The SOD activity in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 mg/L test group reached the peak at the 10th and 5th days, respectively. Afterward, the SOD activity declined gradually, indicating that the oxidative stress broke the adaptive intensity of the hepatopancreas and gill, and ROS generation exceeded the elimination limit of SOD. Massive ROS accumulation caused certain oxidative damages to the hepatopancreas and gill and inhibited SOD activity. Such inhibition effects intensified as time proceeded, showing an evident time–effect relation (Figure 1b). The SOD activity in the hepatopancreas of the 0.30 mg/L test group continued to increase after the first day; this result indicates that ROS generation in 15 days did not exceed the elimination limit of SOD in the 0.30 mg/L group. Meanwhile, the MDA content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased significantly at the first day of the enrichment stage (p < 0.05) and then continued to increase. This finding reveals that although SOD could eliminate ROS, ROS generation was quicker, and the continuous accumulation of ROS still increased LPO continuously. During the release stage, the SOD activity and MDA content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups declined gradually and could recover to the normal level (p > 0.05). This result is attributed to the decreased oxidative damage pressure in the hepatopancreas and gill and the recovery of indexes to the normal level as Cr(VI) continuously discharged from the living bodies.

MT is widespread in organisms. It can be induced by heavy metals and can combine with many heavy metals. Such induction is closely related to heavy metal concentration; thus, it could be used to predict heavy metal-pollution pressure in organisms [9,10]. In this experiment, the MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups increased significantly at the first day of the enrichment stage (p < 0.05) and then continued to increase. The MT content of the 1.50 mg/L test group was higher than that of the 0.30 mg/L test group (p < 0.05) because when Cr(VI) began to enrich in organisms, MTs synthesized quickly and combined with Cr(VI) to reduce the nonspecific binding between cells and CR(VI), thus detoxicating heavy metal ions [22]. Meanwhile, similarly to SOD, an evident relationship was observed between the Cr(VI) and the MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill. This relationship is consistent with that between Cu²⁺, Hg²⁺, and Cd²⁺ contents and MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of Charybdis japonica [23]. After reaching the peak, the MTs in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 mg/L test group and the gill of the 0.30 mg/L test group began to drop. When Cr(VI) accumulation exceeded the synthesis speed and binding capacity of MTs, the organelle decomposed and Ca²⁺ channels, which are related to the mRNA expression of MTs, were blocked. Consequently, Cr(VI) could not be integrated by MTs, but combined with other macromolecules, which would generate a toxic effect to the hepatopancreas and gill, thus reducing the MT content [24]. The MT content in the hepatopancreas of the 0.30 mg/L test group continued to increase, indicating that Cr(VI) accumulation under this concentration did not exceed the binding capacity of MTs. During the release stage, the MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill of the 1.50 and 0.30 mg/L test groups declined continuously from an overall perspective and was able to recover to the normal level at the 15th day (p > 0.05). This indicates that Cr(VI) could be released completely combined with MTs in 15 days under both test concentrations.

Figure 1 and Figure 3 show that the time and value of peak SOD activity and MT content in the hepatopancreas and gill are different. The gill achieved the highest SOD activity and MT content earlier, but the peak levels were lower compared with the hepatopancreas. This result reflects the different physiological functions of the hepatopancreas and gill. The hepatopancreas is the major organ of heavy metal accumulation and detoxification and has a strong capacity for MT synthesis. The gill is the respiratory organ of crabs and directly contacts with heavy metal ions in water, but it exhibits far lower heavy metal accumulation capacity and a weak detoxification function. MT synthesis is more easily inhibited by heavy metals than other tissues [25,26]. Thus, the gill achieved the highest SOD activity and MT content earlier, but the peak levels were lower compared with the hepatopancreas. Furthermore, the hepatopancreas showed a longer recovery time to normal MDA content than the gill during the release stage (Figure 2), demonstrating that the hepatopancreas, the organ of accumulation and detoxification, suffered LPO effects more seriously.

5. Conclusions

The study demonstrated that Cr(VI) exposure induced significant increases in SOD activity, MDA, and MT content in both the hepatopancreas and gill tissues during the first 15 days of the enrichment stage. Notably, these effects were observed in both high (1.50 mg/L) and low (0.30 mg/L) concentration groups. Following 15 days of the release stage, both tissues showed a return to normal levels of these biomarkers, indicating a recovery from Cr(VI) exposure. The gill tissue responded more quickly than the hepatopancreas, achieving peak SOD activity, MDA, and MT content earlier during the enrichment stage, albeit with lower peak values. Additionally, the gill exhibited a faster recovery to baseline levels during the release stage, suggesting that it recovers more efficiently from Cr(VI) toxicity compared to the hepatopancreas.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.L. (Lei Li) and G.X.; methodology, L.L. (Lei Li); software, J.J.; validation, L.L. (Lei Li), C.S. and G.X.; formal analysis, C.S.; investigation, W.S.; resources, Y.S.; data curation, W.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, C.S.; writing—review and editing, L.L. (Lei Li); visualization, M.J.; supervision, M.J.; project administration, L.L. (Linlan Lv); funding acquisition, Y.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The use of animals in this study was approved by East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (dhdf2024-11), which was carried out according to the guidelines for the care and use of experimental animals.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

We share our research data.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, for providing essential resources and a collaborative environment that greatly contributed to the success of this study. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to the College of Marine and Biological Engineering, Yancheng Institute of Technology, for their invaluable guidance and support throughout this research. Without the expertise and assistance from both institutions, this work would not have been possible.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Figures

Figure 1. Effects of Cr(VI) on SOD activity of hepatopancreas (a) and gill (b). Note: single asterisk (*) indicates significant difference between treatment groups and control group (p [less than] 0.05); the same applies below.

Figure 2. Effects of Cr(VI) on MDA content of hepatopancreas (a) and gill (b). Note: single asterisk (*) indicates significant difference between treatment groups and control group (p [less than] 0.05); the same applies below.

Figure 3. Effects of Cr(VI) on MT content of hepatopancreas (a) and gill (b). Note: single asterisk (*) indicates significant difference between treatment groups and control group (p [less than] 0.05); the same applies below.

References

1. Costa, M. Potential hazards of hexavalent chromate in our drinking water. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.; 2003; 188, pp. 1-5. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0041-008X(03)00011-5] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12668116]

2. Jeyasingh, J.; Philip, L. Bioremediation of chromium contaminated soil: Optimization of operating parameters under laboratory conditions. J. Hazard. Mater.; 2005; 118, pp. 113-120. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.10.003] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15721535]

3. Park, D.; Yun, Y.-S.; Park, J.M. Use of dead fungal biomass for the detoxification of hexavalent chromium: Screening and kinetics. Process Biochem.; 2005; 40, pp. 2559-2565. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2004.12.002]

4. Bhattacharya, A.; Mandal, S.; Das, S. Bioaccumulation of chromium and cadmium in commercially edible fishes of gangetic West Bengal. Trends Appl. Sci. Res.; 2006; 1, pp. 511-517.

5. Oshida, P.S.; Word, L.S. Bioaccumulation of chromium and its effects on reproduction in Neanthes arenaceodentata (Polychaeta). Mar. Environ. Res.; 1982; 7, pp. 167-174. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0141-1136(82)90029-0]

6. O’Brien, T.J.; Ceryak, S.; Patierno, S.R. Complexities of chromium carcinogenesis: Role of cellular response, repair and recovery mechanisms. Mutat. Res.; 2003; 533, pp. 3-36. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.09.006]

7. Ding, M.; Shi, X. Molecular mechanisms of Cr (VI)-induced carcinogenesis. Mol. Cell. Biochem.; 2002; 234, pp. 293-300. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1015975218920]

8. Pandey, V.; Dixit, V.; Shyam, R. Antioxidative responses in relation to growth of mustard (Brassica juncea cv. Pusa Jaikisan) plants exposed to hexavalent chromium. Chemosphere; 2005; 61, pp. 40-47. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.03.026] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16157168]

9. Ridlington, J.W.; Fowler, B.A. Isolation and partial characterization of a cadmium-binding protein from the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Chem.-Biol. Interact.; 1979; 25, pp. 127-138. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0009-2797(79)90041-3]

10. Thirumoorthy, N.; Kumar, K.M.; Sundar, A.S.; Panayappan, L.; Chatterjee, M. Metallothionein: An overview. World J. Gastro.; 2007; 13, 993. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v13.i7.993]

11. Kubrak, O.I.; Lushchak, V.; Lushchak, J.V.; Torous, I.M.; Storey, J.M.; Storey, K.B.; Lushchak, V.I. Chromium effects on free radical processes in goldfish tissues: Comparison of Cr (III) and Cr (VI) exposures on oxidative stress markers, glutathione status and antioxidant enzymes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.; 2010; 152, pp. 360-370. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2010.06.003]

12. Farombi, E.; Adelowo, O.; Ajimoko, Y.R. Biomarkers of oxidative stress and heavy metal levels as indicators of environmental pollution in African cat fish (Clarias gariepinus) from Nigeria Ogun River. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health; 2007; 4, pp. 158-165. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph2007040011] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17617680]

13. Samrana, S.; Ali, A.; Muhammad, U.; Azizullah, A.; Ali, H.; Khan, M.; Naz, S.; Khan, M.D.; Zhu, S.; Chen, J. Physiological, ultrastructural, biochemical, and molecular responses of glandless cotton to hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) exposure. Environ. Pollut.; 2020; 266, 115394. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115394] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32829171]

14. Sridevi, B.; Reddy, K.V.; Reddy, S.L. Effect of trivalent and hexavalent chromium on antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation in a freshwater field crab, Barytelphusa guerini. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.; 1998; 61, pp. 384-390. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001289900774] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9724363]

15. Ahearn, G.A.; Mandal, P.K.; Mandal, A. Mechanisms of heavy-metal sequestration and detoxification in crustaceans: A review. J. Comp. Physiol. B Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol.; 2004; 174, pp. 439-452. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00360-004-0438-0]

16. Yu, B.; Wang, X.; Dong, K.F.; Xiao, G.; Ma, D. Heavy metal concentrations in aquatic organisms (fishes, shrimp and crabs) and health risk assessment in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull.; 2020; 159, 111505. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111505]

17. Li, K.; Zhou, Z.; Chen, L.; Meng, Y.; Wu, Y. Assessment of various biomarkers in Carassius auratus exposed to benzo [a] pyrene. Res. Environ. Sci.; 2006; 19, pp. 91-95.

18. Ren, J.Y.; Pan, L.Q.; Miao, J. Effects of benzo (a) pyrene and benzo (k) fluoranthene mixture on the toxicology parameter of scallop Chlamys farrerri. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Toxicol. Pharmacol. CBP; 2006; 26, pp. 1180-1186.

19. Onosaka, S.; Cherian, M.G. Comparison of metallothionein determination by polarographic and cadmium-saturation methods. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.; 1982; 63, pp. 270-274. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0041-008X(82)90049-7]

20. Narula, S.S.; Brouwer, M.; Hua, Y.; Armitage, I.M. Three-dimensional solution structure of Callinectes sapidus metallothionein-1 determined by homonuclear and heteronuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biochemistry; 1995; 34, pp. 620-631. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bi00002a029]

21. Pan, L.; Ren, J.; Wu, Z. Effects of heavy metal ions on SOD, CAT activities of hepatopancreas and gill of the crab Eriocheir sinensis. J. Ocean. Univ. China; 2004; 34, pp. 189-194.

22. Isani, G.; Andreani, G.; Kindt, M.; Carpene, E. Metallothioneins (MTs) in marine molluscs. Cell. Mol. Biol.; 2000; 46, pp. 311-330. [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10774922]

23. Xu, X.; Yan, B.; Xu, J.; Pan, N.; Tang, Y.; Du, D.; Zhang, Y. Effects of cadmium stress on activities of antioxidant enzymes, malonaldehyde content and cadmium accumulation in Asian swimming crab Charybdis japonica. Fish. Sci.; 2014; 33, pp. 551-555.

24. Rani, A.U.; Ramamurthi, R. Histopathological alterations in the liver of freshwater teleost Tilapia mossambica in response to cadmium toxicity. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf.; 1989; 17, pp. 221-226. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0147-6513(89)90041-9]

25. Mouneyrac, C.; Amiard-Triquet, C.; Amiard, J.C.; Rainbow, P.S. Comparison of metallothionein concentrations and tissue distribution of trace metals in crabs (Pachygrapsus marmoratus) from a metal-rich estuary, in and out of the reproductive season. Comparative biochemistry and physiology. Toxicol. Pharmacol. CBP; 2001; 129, pp. 193-209. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1532-0456(01)00193-4]

26. Wu, J.-P.; Chen, H.-C. Metallothionein induction and heavy metal accumulation in white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei exposed to cadmium and zinc. Comp. Biochem. Physiology. Toxicol. Pharmacol. CBP; 2005; 140, pp. 383-394. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2005.03.006]